Fallacies

Question 0

To justify support for a position by citing an esteemed or well-known figure who supports it. An appeal to authority does not address the merit of the position.

Answer 0

appeal to authority

Question 1

Dismissing an argument by attacking the person who offers it rather than by refuting its reasoning.

Answer 1

ad hominem

Question 2

Claiming to speak with the “voice of experience” in support of an argument (even when that experience may not be relevant).

Answer 2

appeal to experience

Question 3

Citing a threat or possibility of a frightening outcome as the reason for supporting an argument. This threat can be physical or emotional: the idea is to invoke fear. This is sometimes termed “scare tactics.”

Answer 3

appeal to fear

Question 4

Citing majority sentiment or popular opinion as the reason for supporting a claim. It assumes that any position favored by the larger crowd must be true or worthy.

Answer 4

appeal to popularity/ popular passions

Question 5

This approach focuses on discrediting the underlying evidence for an argument and thereby questioning its validity.

Answer 5

attacking evidence

Question 6

Asserting a conclusion that is assumed in the reasoning. The reason given to support the conclusion restates the conclusion.

Answer 6

begging the question

Question 7

Refusing to admit contradictions or inconsistencies when making an argument or defending a position.

Answer 7

denying inconsistencies

Question 8

Assuming only two alternatives when, in reality, there are more than two. It implies that one of two outcomes is inevitable—either x or y.

Answer 8

either-or

Question 9

Avoiding direct and truthful answers to difficult questions through diversionary tactics, vagueness, or deliberately confusing or complex responses.

Answer 9

evading questions

Question 10

Drawing an invalid comparison between things for the purpose of either supporting or refuting some position. It suggests that because two things are alike in some respect, they must be alike in other respects.

Answer 10

faulty analogy

Question 11

Justifying illegal or unethical practices by arguing that they are necessary to confront a greater evil or threat.

Answer 11

hard-cruel-world argument

Question 12

Inferring a general proposition about something based on too small a sample or an unrepresentative sample.

Answer 12

hasty generalization

Question 13

Introducing an irrelevant point or topic to divert attention from the issue at hand. It is a tactic for confusing the point under debate.

Answer 13

red herring

Question 14

Asserting that a solution is not worth adopting because it does not fix the problem completely.

Answer 14

search for perfect solution

Question 15

To suggest that a step or action, once taken, will lead inevitably to similar steps or actions with presumably undesirable consequences. The fallacy is invoked to justify not taking a given initial step or action, lest it lead us down the “slippery slope.”

Answer 15

slippery slope

Question 16

Distorting or exaggerating an opponent’s argument so that it might be more easily attacked.

Answer 16

straw man

Question 17

The use of irrelevant, misleading, or questionable statistics to support an argument or defend a position.

Answer 17

thrown-in statistics

Question 18

Defending or justifying our wrong position or conduct by pointing to a similar wrong done by someone else.

Answer 18

two wrongs make a right

Question 19

Citing abstract concepts (freedom, justice, science) to support an argument or to call for action.

Answer 19

treating abstracts as reality