fallacies Flashcards
Arguing in a Circle
Either explicitly or implicitly asserting, in the premise of an argu-
ment, what is asserted in the conclusion of that argument.
Question-Begging Language
Discussing an issue by means of language that assumes a position
on the very question at issue, in such a way as to direct the listener to that
same conclusion.
Complex Question
Formulating a question in a way that inappropriately presupposes that a definite answer has already been given to an unasked question about an open issue or that treats a series of questions as if the same answer will be given to each of the questions in the series.
Drawing the Wrong Conclusion
Drawing a conclusion other than the one supported by the evidence presented in the argument.
Appeal to Common Opinion
Urging the acceptance of a position simply on the grounds that a
large number of people accept it or urging the rejection of a position on the grounds that very few people accept it
Appeal to Force or Threat
Attempting to persuade others of a position by threatening them
with an undesirable state of affairs instead of presenting evidence for one’s view
Appeal to Tradition
Attempting to persuade others of a point of view by appealing to
their feelings of reverence or respect for a tradition instead of to evidence,
especially when a more important principle or issue is at stake.
Appeal to Self-Interest
Urging an opponent to accept or reject a particular position by
appealing solely to his or her personal circumstances or self-interest, when a more important issue is at stake.
Manipulation of Emotions
Attempting to persuade others to accept a position by exploiting
their emotions instead of presenting evidence for the position.
False Alternatives
Restricting too severely the number of proposed alternative responses to a problem or situation and assuming that one of the suggested alternatives must be the true or the right one.
Is-Ought Fallacy
Assuming that because something is now the practice, it ought to
be the practice. Conversely, assuming that because something is not now the practice, it ought not to be the practice.
Wishful Thinking
Assuming that because one wants something to be true, it is or
will be true. Conversely, assuming that because one does not want something to be true, then it is not or will not be true.
Misuse of a Principle
Misapplying a principle or rule in a particular instance by assuming that it has no exceptions. Conversely, attempting to refute a principle or rule by means of an exceptional case
Fallacy of the Mean
Assuming that the moderate or middle view between two extremes must be the best or right one simply because it is the middle view.
Fallacy of Popular Wisdom
Appealing to insights expressed in aphorisms or clichés, folk wisdom, or so-called common sense instead of to relevant evidence for a claim
Special Pleading
Applying principles, rules, or criteria to another person while failing or refusing to apply them to oneself or to a situation that is of personal interest, without providing sufficient evidence to support such an exception
Omission of Key Evidence
Constructing an argument that fails to include key evidence that
is critical to the support of the conclusion.
Causal Oversimplification
Oversimplifying the causal antecedents of an event by specifying causal factors that are insufficient to account for the event in question or by overemphasizing the role of one or more of those factors.
Post Hoc Fallacy
Assuming that a particular event, B, is caused by another event,
A, simply because B follows A in time.
Neglect of a Common Cause
Failing to recognize that two seemingly related events may not
be causally related at all, but rather are effects of a common cause.
Domino Fallacy
Assuming, without appropriate evidence, that a particular action
or event is just one, usually the first, in a series of steps that will lead inevitably to a specific, usually undesirable, consequence.
Gambler’s Fallacy
Arguing that because a chance event has had a certain run in the
past, the probability of its occurrence in the future is significantly altered
Denying the Counterevidence
Refusing to consider seriously or unfairly minimizing the evi-
dence that is brought against one’s claim.
Abusive Ad Hominem
Attacking one’s opponent in a personal or abusive way as a
means of ignoring or discrediting his or her criticism or argument
Poisoning the Well
Rejecting a criticism or argument presented by another person
because of his or her personal circumstances or improper motives.
Two-Wrongs Fallacy
Rejecting a criticism of one’s argument or actions by accusing
one’s critic or others of thinking or acting in a similar way
Attacking a Straw Man
Misrepresenting an opponent’s position or argument, usually for
the purpose of making it easier to attack
Trivial Objections
Attacking an opponent’s position by focusing critical attention
on a minor point in the argument
Red Herring
Attempting to hide the weakness of a position by drawing atten-
tion away from the real issue to a side issue.
Resort to Humor or Ridicule
Injecting humor or ridicule into an argument in an effort to cover up an inability or unwillingness to respond appropriately to an opponent’s criticism or counterargument.
