Factors affecting performance

Question 1

Energy systems:

Alactacid system (ATP/PC)

Answer 1

Alactacid (ATP/PC) system:
• Source of fuel: Creatine phosphate
• Duration: Very fast but limited 8-12 seconds
• fatigue: depletion of PC & ATP
• By product: heat
• Process and rate of recovery: Pc restored 30 sec-2 min
First movements and used for high intensity

E.g. used in sprint, jump, shot put, running bases in softball, soccer GK

Question 2

Lactic Acid system:

Answer 2

• Source of fuel: glycogen
• Duration: fast medium 30sec-3 min
• Fatigue: H ion build up
• By product: pyruvic acid
• Process and rate of recovery: removal of pyruvic acid 30-60 min
• E.g. used in 200m, 400m, 800m, 200m freestyle, gymnastics floor routine

Question 3

Aerobic system:

Answer 3

• Source of fuel: glycogen and fats
• Duration: very efficient, long 3+min
• Fatigue: glycogen to fat shift
• By product: water carbon dioxide
• Process and rate recovery: restore fuel remove waste 24-28 hrs

E.g. used in marathons, cycling, walking, daily life – sitting etc

Question 4

TYPES OF TRAINING AND TRAINING METHODS

aerobic:

Answer 4

● Aerobic – uses aerobic system as main source of energy supply,

Continuous

• Sustained effort
• Moderate intensity – heart rate must rise above aerobic threshold and remain within target zone for duration of activity
• 20 mins +
• Used by endurance athletes – marathons, triathlons, cross country skiing
• improves efficiency of cardiovascular system
• delays onset of blood lactate accumulation
• reduces body fat
• can result in plateau if training principles are not followed

Fartlek

• ‘Speed Play’
• Participants vary speed and terrain (e.g. sprint bursts or hills)
• Ultimately engages both aerobic and anaerobic systems
• No predetermined structure – variety and specificity can be implemented
• Used by team sport players (combination of aerobic and anaerobic)
• Addresses unpredictable nature of team sports
• Can be used in off-season and early preseason
• Improves anaerobic threshold with varying intensity
• Alleviates boredom

Aerobic Interval

• Alternating periods of work with recovery
• Generally short recovery – doesn’t allow full recovery - maintains stress on aerobic syst.
• Frequency, intensity and duration can be altered (variety, progressive overload)
• E.g. run 400m, rest for 60 seconds, repeat 6 times
• Benefits runners and swimmers
• Can benefit team sport players as there is no detrimental effect on anaerobic power
• Body adapts to higher intensity - Enables work at high intensity unlike continuous training
• Reduces likelihood of overuse injuries
• Delays onset of blood lactate accumulation
• Variables can be managed to address specificity

Circuit

• Participants move from one station to another performing specified exercises
• Suitable for all levels of athlete as exercises can be performed at own pace
• Develops strength and endurance for team sports e.g. netball
• Exercises can be made game specific
• Can be used in off-season and early preseason
• Can develop strength, endurance, flexibility, skill and coordination
• Alleviates boredom

Question 5

Anaerobic

Answer 5

• Develops ATP-PC and Lactic Acid systems
• high intensity work
• Short duration
• Limited recovery

Anaerobic interval training

• Short distances at max intensity
• Rest period are around 2 mins (longer than in aerobic interval training)
• Allows ATP and PC to be replenished – therefore close to max intensity can be produced
• Suited to speed or power athletes e.g. sprinters
• Sports that predominately use ATPPC or Lactic acid system (100-800m sprints, 50m freestyle, netball, soccer)
• Improves anaerobic threshold
• Athlete can perform at close to maximal intensity for longer periods of time

Question 6

Flexibility

Answer 6

Static

• Most basic form of stretching
• Stretched to end point and held for 15-30 seconds
• Should be avoided in warm up or before performance
• Used for rehab of injuries
• Good for cool down after all sports that require movement of large muscle groups
• Safe, effective, slow, controlled

Ballistic

• Repeated movements such as swinging or bouncing to gain extra stretch
• Attempts to force beyond normal range of motion
• Should avoid jerky movements
• Common example is bouncing toe touches
• Best used by elite athletes who know how to do it correctly
• Javelin throwers for shoulders before event
• Can generate greater force in movements

PNF

• Static stretch, isometric contraction then further static stretch (safe and controlled)
• E.g. lying on back with leg in air, partner pushes against leg then relaxes, repeat
• Allows muscle to get used to new length before stretching again
• Warm up before sports that use large muscle groups e.g. athletics, triathlon
• Useful in rehabilitation programs
• Lengthens muscle against resistance
• Targets specific muscle groups

Dynamic

• Uses speed and momentum to gradually increase range of motion
• E.g. lunges, squats, leg swings, arm circles
• Imitate movements experienced in the game
• Controlled – does not push muscle beyond normal range
• Useful in warm-ups as it mimics actions in game

Question 7

Strength

Answer 7

• increase body’s ability to impart force against resistance
• Can develop absolute strength, power or muscular endurance

Free/fixed weights

• Most common method of resistance training
• Variables – reps, sets, weight, rest, type of activity
• Allows greater range of motion than machines
• Can isolate particular muscles
• Weight machines ensure correct positioning and movement

Elastic

• Cheap, portable form of resistance
• Available in differing resistance (colour coded)
• Resistance during up and down phase of movement (complete resistance)
• Good for strengthening and rehab of injuries
• Can target specific muscles groups or actions
• Good for swimmers – resistance felt through full ROM

Hydraulic
- Weights only move when resistance is applied – safe to use
- Resistance through full range of motion – works agonist and antagonist muscles in
concentric and eccentric phases
- Useful in rehabilitation

Question 8

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING

Answer 8

Progressive overload

• Gains only occur if training load is greater than normal and increased with improvements
• As body becomes familiar with particular levels of training stress, it adapts and further training at same level does not lead to any further improvements
• Adaptations won’t take place if load/resistance is too small or big
• Too large a stress can result in onset of fatigue, lack of motivation and possible injury
• Most important principle in aerobic, strength and flexibility training

Question 9

Specificity

Answer 9

• Greatest gain made when training activity resembles game – duration, intensity
• Allows body to adapt to specific stresses
• METABOLIC SPECIFICITY targeting appropriate energy systems (aerobic/anaerobic)
• Targets slow/fast twitch muscle fibres, muscle groups
• targets relevant components of fitness e.g. agilit

Question 10

Reversibility

Answer 10

• Detraining effect – gains made by training will be gradually lost if training ceases
• Greater gains during training = greater loss when you stop
• Process applies to aerobic, strength and flexibility programs
• Hence elite athletes do off-season training
• Generally will lose benefits after 2 weeks of no training

Question 11

Variety

Answer 11

• Repetition leads to boredom – psychological, loss of motivation
• Different training techniques challenge athlete
• Mix up types of training – skills, fitness, interval, circuit, game play, free weights, resistance
• Variety helps improve motivation, team bonding, psychological state
• E.g. a swimmer doesn’t just do laps, they can do ocean swims, running etc

Question 12

Training thresholds

Answer 12

• Point that, if passed, training gains/adaptations occur
• Thresholds are determined by intensity (heart rate)
• Aerobic threshold
  Generally at 50-60% VO2
  max and 70% MHR
• Working above aerobic threshold = working in the aerobic training zone
• Anaerobic threshold
  Point at which lactic acid starts to accumulate
  Generally at 75-80% VO2
  max and 85% max HR
  If training above anaerobic threshold, you will reach Lactate Inflexion Point (LIP) – further effort = fatigue
• Working close to and in spurts above thresholds will improve lactic acid tolerance and cardiorespiratory fit

Question 13

● Warm up and cool down

Answer 13

Warm up:

• Reduce risk of injury – increased joint mobility and muscle stretch
• Increase body temp – promotes faster, more powerful muscle contraction
• Mentally prepare athlete
• Stimulate cardiorespiratory system
• Should last around 10 mins
• May include rest periods to avoid fatigue

Cool down:

• Active recovery – allows blood to return to heart rather than pool in muscles
• Minimises stiffness/soreness
• Disperse lactic acid
• Replenish energy stores
• Allows body temperature to return to no

Question 14

PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS IN RESPONSE TO TRAINING-

Answer 14

Resting heart rate

• Number of heart beats per minute while at rest
• Trained athlete – more efficient cardiovascular system = lower heart rate
• Average resting heart rate is 72 bpm
• Trained athlete will also have far quicker return to normal HR after exercise

Question 15

● Cardiac output

Answer 15

• Volume of blood ejected by the heart per minute
• Cardiac Output = heart rate x stroke volume
• Increases with training, decreases with age
• Trained athletes have low HR x high SV
• Untrained have high HR x Low SV therefore around the same

Question 16

● Oxygen uptake

Answer 16

• Ability for working muscles to use oxygen being delivered
• Most significant improvements in response to aerobic training
• Maximal oxygen uptake – VO2
  Max: Indicates maximum oxygen muscles can absorb
  Indicates level of cardiorespiratory endurance
• Greater cardiac output and stroke volume = greater V

Question 17

● Lung capacity

Answer 17

• Amount of air that the lungs can hold
• Lung capacity changes little with training
• Vital capacity – amount of air that can be expelled after max inhale (slight increase training)
• Residual volume – amount of air that can’t be removed from the lungs – slight decrease
  with training
• Tidal volume – amount of air breathed in and out during a normal respiration – relatively
  unchanged

Question 18

Haemoglobin level

Answer 18

• Haemoglobin is a substance in red blood cells – binds to oxygen and spreads it around the body
• Women have slightly lower levels of haemoglobin
• Haemoglobin levels increase with endurance training – improves oxygen-carrying capacity
• Levels can be increased by training at high altitudes
• Endurance training = increased number of red blood cells
• Training at high altitudes increases haemoglobin levels

Question 19

Muscle hypertrophy

Answer 19

• Muscle growth and increased muscle size
• Muscle length remains the same but mass and area increase
• Hypertrophy is the result of stimulating muscles in training – overloading them
• Without stimulation, fibre size can reduce (atrophy) - reversibility
• Overload principle and specificity encourage hypertrophy

Question 20

Effect on slow/fast twitch muscle fibres

Answer 20

• Ratio of slow : fast twitch muscle fibres is genetically determines

Slow Twitch

• Red fibres (type 1)
• Benefit more from endurance training (aerobic)
• Contract slowly, release energy gradually
• Used during sustained activity e.g. jogging, swimming, cycling
• Use oxygen to generate fuel (ATP)
• Resistant to fatigue but less power
• Aerobic training allows efficient use of oxygen to produce ATP, more capillaries around muscles and growth of red fibres

Fast Twitch:
- White fibres (type 2)
- Contract fast, release energy quickly but fatigue quickly
- Use anaerobic metabolism (glycolysis) to generate fuel
- Benefit more from anaerobic training – sprints, weight lifting, long jump etc
- Anaerobic training causes white fibres to grow, supply fuel more efficiently and tolerate
lactic acid better can sustain performance for longer

Question 21

How can psychology affect performance?
MOTIVATION

positive and negative

Answer 21

Positive

• Motivated by thoughts of a good result or reward – what you want to happen
• Relies on continual reinforcement and reinforcement by coach, parents, teammates, media
• More likely to achieve the result we imagine/visualise – good to think positively
• Can encourage the athlete to reach their goals
  e. g. working out at gym because you want to look more muscly
  e. g. playing extra well because you want a medal or to get selected into team
  e. g. training at full effort because you want to be in top 7.

Negative

• Improvement because of fear of perceived consequences of poor performance
• Can decrease athletes self-esteem and self-confidence (always fear, no encouragement)
• Can result in excessive anxiety, fear and tension
• Intimidation – you will get benched, dropped from team
• Criticism – can’t you do anything right, you should be ashamed, comparing players
• Guilt – you’re letting the team down, you’ve played better than that, blaming GK for goals scored by opposition
• Physical Abuse – if you do it badly you will have to do extra laps, 100 push ups, repeat it
  e. g. player works extra hard so they don’t get benched
  e. g. golfer does not want to hit ball in the bunker
  e. g. player tries hard because they don’t want to get yelled at in front of teammates

Question 22

Intrinsic and extrinsic

Answer 22

Intrinsic
- Comes from within the individual
- Participation in activity for enjoyment, satisfaction, interest, pride, improvement in skills
- Athlete enjoys developing skills and performing the movements
- Focus on the process rather than the end result
- Challenged by the establishment of competence
- Flow – feels right, fully engaged, nothing else seems to matter, good balance between level
of challenge and ability to meet the challenge
- Shown to be most effective method of motivation – less ups and downs, less stress if
mistakes are made
e.g. athlete goes in City to Surf because they love running
e.g. soccer player practices because they love scoring goals

Extrinsic

• Internal state is modified by sources originating from outside the person e.g. coach, parent
• Focus on product, what can be gained rather than the satisfaction of doing it
• May work temporarily but not last - discouraged when they don’t meet expectations
• Praise, money, trophy, medals, career
  e. g. don’t want to let parents down
  e. g. want to make zone to get a zone jumper
  e. g. want to perform well to be selected into team

Question 23

ANXIETY AND AROUSAL

Answer 23

• Anxiety is PSYCHOLOGICAL – from athletes mind

- Arousal if PHYSIOLOGICAL – from bodily responses to stimulus

Question 24

Trait and state anxiety

Answer 24

• Anxiety tends to inhibit performance
• Negative emotional state – perceived situation as threatening
• Disrupts, unsettles person, lowers concentration
  Trait – how anxious someone is naturally, genetic characteristic

State – Anxiety in a particular situation e.g. preparing for a race

Question 25

Optimum arousal

Answer 25

• Specific level of anxiety and can be experienced prior to and during a game
• Produces excitement and readiness to perform
• Over-arousal – tension, overstimulate, unable to concentrate, less body control
• under-arousal – disinterest, distraction, low motivation
• Optimum levels depend on sport and individual (high anxiety – less arousal needed)
  e. g. excessive arousal may not be beneficial in golf or diving when you need to be steady, controlled and not tense

Question 26

Concentration/attention skills (focusing)

Answer 26

• Ability to focus on the task at hand
• Improved by emphasis on process not outcome
• Encourages athlete to adapt to changing stimuli and block out distractions
• Must maintain uninterrupted connection with task

e. g. diver has to block out crowd and focus before they dive
e. g. when shooting a goal in netball – need to concentrate on own technique
e. g. cricketer focuses on ball in bowlers hand to figure out which way the ball will spin

Question 27

Mental rehearsals/visualisation/imagery

Answer 27

• Technique of picturing the performance before the execution
• Familiarises mins with desired motion, can do it without thinking
• Improves concentration, optimal arousal, clears mind, provides additional practice
  e. g. dancer runs through routine in mind before performance

Question 28

Relaxation techniques

Answer 28

• Techniques that assist in controlling high levels of arousal
• Decreases respiration rate, heart rate and blood pressure – reduces tension
• Improves concentration and increases motivation
• Brings athlete back to optimum level of arousal for their sport
• Especially important for people with high trait anxiety
• Progressive muscular contraction – squeezing and relaxing parts of body – reduces muscle
  tension
• Meditation – clearing mind of stresses
• Centred breathing – slow breaths in and out – take control of stress and anxiety
  e.g. athlete listens to relaxation music before race to relax themselves

Question 29

Goal setting

Answer 29

• Provides athlete with reason to persevere with training
• Needs be relevant and attainable
• Can be long or short term, behavioural or performance based
• Provides focus, gives direction, motivates and redirects focus if lost

Question 30

How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance?

NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

Answer 30

Pre-performance
- Last substantial meal should be 3-4 hours before – approx. 100g of carbs, should be low in
fat, protein and fibre as they take longer to digest leaning to stomach discomfort e.g. Low
GI foods such as wholegrain cereal, bread, pasta
- Light snack 1-2 hours prior e.g. smoothie, sports bar, yogurt, fruit
- Less than an hour before – light foods, high GI e.g. lollies, sports bar, Gatorade
- Should drink water throughout the day, around 500–600 mL of fluid 2-3 hours prior and
250–300 mL in the last 15 mins

Carb Loading:
- Maximise muscle glycogen stores prior to high intensity endurance competition
- Increase intake of carbs 3-4 days leading up to event
- Balanced diet containing 7-12g carbs per kg of body weight (ideally complex carbs)
- Benefits endurance athletes e.g. marathons, cycling, long triathlons, cross-country skiing,
endurance swimming

Question 31

During performance

Answer 31

Hydration:
- Continuous hydration is the main priority – small amount of fluid during breaks
- Depends on conditions e.g. extreme heat – greater sweat loss, more hydration needed
- Sports drinks are ideal as they contain carbs which help replenish glycogen stores
- Hydration is important as it helps maintain body temp, replace sweat losses, allow muscular
contractions, reduce cramps and spasms

Nutrition:

• Endurance events over 60 mins – refuelling may be needed
• In form of concentrated glucose e.g. energy gels, sports bars, sports drink

Question 32

Post-performance

Answer 32

• To return body system to pre-performance condition
• Should begin immediately and last for 8-12 hours
• Restore depleted glycogen – carbs e.g. flavoured milk, bread roll, banana
• Repair damaged muscle tissue – protein e.g. shake, baked beans
• Rehydrate – water and sports drink to replace lost electrolytes (approx. 150% fluid losses)

Question 33

SUPPLEMENTATION

Answer 33

• Eating additional nutrients to account for a deficiency in diet
• Can benefit general wellbeing, sporting performance or can cause negative consequences
• Athletes should look for foods high in nutrients before looking at supplementat
  ion
  ● Vitamins/minerals
• Vitamins help the body use energy nutrients
• Assist functions such as energy release, metabolic regulation and tissue building
• Can be expensive, excessive quantities can be dangerous, headaches, nausea, fatigue –
  detrimental to performance or useless
• E.g. Iron – needed for the production of red blood cells, low iron levels can affect ability to
  transport oxygenated blood around body and to working muscles, especially important for
  female athletes, vegetarians, endurance events – low levels can lead to anaemia
• E.g. Calcium – vital for bone structure and strength, those most at risk are females – lower
  intake of dairy products, loss of calcium from bone tissue after menopause

● Protein
- Protein is required for growth and repair of muscle tissue, also secondary energy source
- Supplements can be natural or synthetic, in form of powder, liquid or solid
- A balanced diet generally contains ample protein
- Excess protein will not aid in tissue growth and will be wasted
- High amounts of protein can negatively affect health – can increase calcium excreted, can
intervene with kidney function, can have high fat content – weight gain, blood vessel
blockage

● Caffeine
Advantages:
- Can improve performance by assisting specific metabolic processes
- During endurance events, it can mobilise fat stores and convert them into free fatty acids
which can be used to supple energy
- Promotes glycogen sparing
- Increased alertness
Disadvantages:
- May contribute to dehydration
- Elevated heart rate, over-arousal, muscle twitches
- Can affect sleep quality and quantity which may adversely affect recovery

● Creatine products

• Creatine comes from production by body cells and through food intake, particularly meat
• It is converted into CP which is used for the resynthesis of ATP
• Creatine cannot be stored in the body
• Can have marginal benefits for explosive athletes e.g. sprinting, weight-lifting
• Possible benefits include increased strength, delayed fatigue, fat burning
• Can be useful for people with low protein intake e.g. vegetarians
• Negatives – weight gain, excess stress on bladder and kidneys, may have little or no impact

Question 34

RECOVERY STRATEGIES

Answer 34

• Aim to restore athletes psychological and physiological function
• Avoid muscle soreness, loss of motivation, allows athlete to return to training ready

Question 35

Physiological strategies

Answer 35

• Focus on removal of metabolic by-products and replacement of fluid lost and energy stores

Cool down:

• Gradually reduce heart rate and body temp to pre-exercise state
• Removes lactic acid – helps reduce muscle soreness, stiffness
• Lengthens and relaxes muscles
• May help prevent DOMS
• 5-10 mins jogging/walking followed by static stretching

Hydration:

• Replace fluid losses to avoid dehydration
• Amount of water depends of duration, intensity, conditions
• Should continue drinking for 12-24 hours post exercise
• Can have sport drinks for carbs, vitamins, minerals
• Food – carbs to replenish energy stores and protein to repair muscle tissue

Question 36

Neural Strategies

Answer 36

• Help central and peripheral nervous systems recovery after strenuous exercise (brain, spinal
  cord, nerves from spine to muscles)

Hydrotherapy:

• Use of water to assist muscle recovery – relax, soothe pain
• Eliminated jarring movements
• Can have psychological benefits – relaxation, time with teammates
• Hot Water Immersion (HWI) – capillaries dilate, blood flows easily, enhances waste removal
• Cold Water Immersion (CWI) –blood vessels constrict, heart rate drops, reduces swelling
• Contrast Water Therapy (CWT) – reduces swelling/pain, aids waste removal, increased ROM

Massage:
- Psychological – relaxing, calming
- Physiological – increased blood flow to tissues, assists lactic acid removal, decreased muscle
tension and soreness, increased flexibility

Question 37

● Tissue damage strategies

Answer 37

Cryotherapy:

• Using cold to treat injuries and improve recovery (particularly in collision sports)
• Slows down tissue inflammatory process, prevents waste build-up
• RICER – 10mins on and off, for a couple of days
• Ice baths – immersion of affected body parts – in for 15-20 mins
• Good for exercise lasting 90-120 mins
• constricts blood vessels, -helps with DOMS, reduces inflammation, pain, muscle spasms

Question 38

Psychological strategies

Answer 38

Relaxation:
- Improves concentration, motivation, reduces anxiety and tension
- Reduces breathing rate, heart rate, muscle activity
- Meditation, massage, quiet walk, setting goals, debrief, mental imagery, progressive
muscular relaxation, positive self-talk, sleep

Question 39

STAGES OF SKILL ACQUISITION

Answer 39

● Cognitive

• Mental processing of information, thinking and understanding
• Conceptualisation – clear mental pictures of the task
• Demonstrations, videos, instructions are essential
• Lots of errors and questions
• Continuous, positive, extrinsic feedback from coach – try not to overload with info
• Generally quite a short stage, rapid improvements

● Associative

• Emphasis on practice
• Can perform basic skill but still inconsistent
• Errors become smaller and less frequent
• Improvements occur with practice and the learner feels more confident
• Feedback is still important
• Can be a long stage, some may never progress to autonomous stage
  e. g. netball, practicing lob and bounce pass with a partner

● Autonomous

• Can perform skill automatically, in full control of actions, consistency
• Performed instinctively, can direct attention to other strategies and tactics
• Feedback is mostly intrinsic – they can correct own mistakes
• Improvements are more complex and take longer
• Practice usually involves game situations, defensive pressure
  e. g. able to vary type of passes in netball game, can consider the position of the defence

Question 40

THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

● Nature of the skill

Answer 40

Open – environment is unpredictable, frequently changing (weather, opposition, surface) e.g. tennis

Closed – Occur in stable predictable conditions e.g. weight lifting

Gross – Requires large muscle groups (legs, back, chest) e.g. running, netball

Fine – Requires small or isolated muscle groups (wrist flexors, biceps) e.g. archery

Discrete – has a clear beginning and end e.g. flip in gymnastics

Serial – combine a number of smaller skills to perform a more complex one e.g. lay-up

Continuous – specific movement repeated over and over e.g. running, swimming, cycling

Self-paced – Timing and speed is determined by performer e.g. tennis serve, golf shot, pitching

Externally-paced – Timing and speed determined by external factors e.g. surf, batting, dancing

Question 41

Decision making

Answer 41

• Needs to be practiced in game conditions
• Based on external cues and preconceived game plan
• Observation – coaching boards and demonstrations to outline planned strategies, observing
  other skilled players on the field

Question 42

● Practice method

Answer 42

MASSED

• Continuous practice sessions with short rest periods
• Works best when athlete is motivated, fresh, only has minimal sessions a week
• E.g. repetitive netball shots

Distributed

• Broken practice sessions with long intervals of rest or other activities
• Works best - low motivation, difficult task, task causes fatigue or discomfort
• E.g. a few netball shots amongst other drills

Whole

• When a skill is practiced in its entirety
• E.g. practicing lay-up in full motion

Part

• Skill is broken into smaller components and practiced separately
• Good for teaching new or very complex skills
• E.g. break lay-up into dribbling, catching, stepping, shooting

Question 43

Feedback

Answer 43

• Information provided to learner about nature or result of their performance
• Provides guidance, helps eradicate errors
  Internal (intrinsic)
• received through proprioception, can feel how well they are performing, correct mistakes

External (extrinsic)
- from external source e.g. coach, videos, and judges scores, race results, applause

Concurrent

• received during performance of skill e.g. brain helps maintain balance during headstand
• Coach yells at athlete to drive harder, to stick tight in defence

Delayed

• received after skill execution e.g. netball shot - ball misses or goes in goal
• Coach tells them how to improve it next time

Knowledge of results

• information about outcome of movement
• always from external source – seeing scoreboard, coach informing athlete of result
• e.g. long jumper finding out distance, can make adjustments if result not favourable

Knowledge of performance

• information about pattern of movement during execution
• feedback on the quality of skill, how well it was performed
• can be from internal or external sources
• e.g. ball toss during tennis serve, arm position during swimming stroke

Question 44

Objective and subjective performance measures

Answer 44

Objective

• Judgement of skill quality measured independently from the observer
• Occurs when testers apply the same criteria and do not have to interpret information
• E.g. measuring scale in high jump, distance in shot put, stopwatch in swimming

Subjective

• Judgement of performance quality based on feelings, impressions, opinions
• Does not use a measurement system - generally less consistent and accurate
• Can use checklists, rating systems and criteria to increase objectivity
• E.g. coach analysing technique or tactical performance of athlete