Factors affecting EWT Flashcards
What are the two factors affecting EWT?
1) Misleading information
2) Anxiety
What are the two types of misleading information?
1) Leading questions
2) Post event discussion
AO1: Post event discussion
Post event discussion is where witnesses discuss their accounts with each other. It reduces the accuracy of EWT in two ways. The first is memory contamination. This is where co-witnesses discuss their EWT with each other and their EWT may become distorted because they combine (mis)information from other witnesses to their own memories suggesting that their memories of the event have changed.
The other type is memory conformity. This is where witnesses go along with each other for social approval (NSI) or because they believe the other witness is right and they’re wrong (ISI). However unliked memory contamination the memory remains unchanged, but the accuracy of recall has been affected.
AO3: Post event discussion (2)
1) RTS Skagerberg and Wright mugging
2) Lacks ecological validity
AO3: Post event discussion - mugging
Research to support post event discussion affecting the accuracy of eye-witness testimony was conducted by Skagerberg and Wright. They showed participants two versions of a film clip of a mugging, one in which a mugger’s hair was dark brown and in the other the mugger’s hair was light brown. The participants discussed the clips in pairs, each having seen different versions. It was found that often they did not report what they had heard from their co-witness, but rather it was a ‘blend’ of the two suggesting the mugger had ‘medium brown hair’ rather than dark or light. Therefore, this supports memory contamination during post-event discussion does occur, distorting the witness’ EWT rather than just conforming to their co-witness’ response. Therefore, increasing the validity of post-event discussion affecting the accuracy of EWT.
AO3 - Post event discussion - Ecological validity
However, much of the research investigating post event discussion and its effect on the accuracy of EWT lacks ecological validity. This is because the research is conducted in a controlled environment (lab). This makes it difficult to generalise the findings to real life situations BECAUSE in real life, post event discussion may not affect the accuracy of EWT there are consequences for witnesses reporting misinformation to the police or a court of law and so their testimony may be less influenced by post event discussion as they are more motivated to give an accurate testimony. Therefore, this reduces the external validity of research investigating post-event discussion.
AO1: Anxiety
Anxiety is a strong emotional and physical state that affects EWT. Extreme anxiety has been found to negatively affect EWT as witnesses only focus on certain aspects of the event so recall is limited. Johnson and Scott did a lab experiment investigating the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT. Participants waited outside a room and where placed into either a high anxiety (weapon focus) or low anxiety condition (IV). In the high anxiety condition the participants hears an argument and the man walked out of the room carrying a bloody knife. In the low anxiety condition the participants heard the argue and the man walked out with grease on their hands and a pen. Participants had to identify the man from 50 photos (DV).
Participants in the low anxiety correctly identified the man 49% of the time compared to the low anxiety which was only 33% of the time. This shows anxiety causes a weapon face as the person focuses on the weapon because of the fear of the situation, reducing EWT.
AO3: Anxiety
1
2
3 - Discussion
4
1) RTS - Valentine and Mesout - labyrinth
2) RTC - Christianson and Hubinette - Bank robbery
3) Discussion Christianson and Hubinette
4) Yerkes-Dodson Law
AO3 - Anxiety - Labyrinth
J Research to support the negative effect of anxiety on the accuracy of eye-witness testimony was conducted by Valentine and Mesout (2009). The researchers used an objective measure (heart rate) to divide participants into high and low anxiety groups. Participants took part in the London Dungeon Labrinth (a high anxiety event) and were then asked to immediately recall physical details of the actor from the event. It was found that high anxiety lowered the accuracy of EWT significantly. This supports the findings of Johnson and Scott’s research because it suggests that high levels of anxiety have a negative effect on immediate eye-witness recall of a stressful event. Therefore, increasing the validity of Johnson and Scott’s research investigating anxiety affecting the accuracy of EWT.
AO3 - Anxiety - Bank robbery
However, research to contradict Johnson and Scott’s research into the effects of anxiety on EWT comes from Christianson and Hubinette. They interviewed 58 real life witnesses of a bank robbery where some had been directly threatened (bank teller - high anxiety) and others were bystanders (customers – low anxiety). It was found that recall was more than 75% accurate across all witnesses, but those who had been directly threatened had even more accurate accounts. This contradicts current research that anxiety reduces the accuracy of EWT BECAUSE compared to real life cases of those who had high anxiety, they were able to focus on key aspects of the event and were successful in the perpetrator being caught. Therefore, reducing the validity of the conclusion that anxiety has a negative effect on the accuracy on EWT.
AO3 - Anxiety - Discussion - other factors
On the other hand, Christianson and Hubinette interviewed participants several months after the event and had no control over what happened to the participants in the intervening time i.e., whether participants had discussed the crime with each other. The effects of anxiety may have been overwhelmed by other factors, such as post-event discussion and it is impossible to determine the effect of anxiety on EWT at the time the participants were interviewed. Therefore, lowering the extent in which Christianson and Hubinette’s research can be used to criticise the findings that anxiety lowers the accuracy of EWT.
AO3 - Anxiety - Yerkes Dodson law
To evaluate anxiety as a factor affecting EWT the Yerkes-Dodson Law can be used. This proposes that anxiety and the accuracy of EWT is not a simple relationship for example, too little or too much anxiety would result in poor EWT recall, however, if you reach an optimum level of anxiety, the accuracy of EWT is high. This explains the difference in results between Johnson and Scott and Christianson and Hubinette as their participants were at an optimum level of anxiety resulting in a more accurate EWT. Whereas in Johnson and Scott they may not have been anxious sue to it being an experiment, resolving the contradiction that shows anxiety does affect EWT.
AO1: Leading questions
Leading questions is a question that wrongly implies something about an event or crime. For example ‘What colour jacket was the youth wearing?’, implying that the perpetrator was a youth. This affects accuracy of EWT as the information that’s provided in the question contaminate the memory of the witness leading to inaccurate recall of information and reducing the accuracy of EWT.
Loftus and Palmer investigate the effect of different phrasing of questions on the witness’ memory of an event. Their sample was 45 American students in a lab experiment. They showed participants a video clip of a car crash and they were asked a leading question with different verbs (IV). The were smashed, hit, collided, bumped and contacted. The question was ‘How fast were the cars going when they **** each other?’ The participants had to give their speed estimates in mph (DV). They found that the guesses for the word smashed were higher 40.5 mph compared to when they used the word contacted, 31.8mph. In conclusion this shows the leading question can influence a participants memory of an event.
What are the evaluations for leading questions? (2 - 1+ think further)
1) Practical applications - cognitive interview
Think further = Economy
2) Lacks mundane realism
AO3: leading questions - Practical applications
A strength of the research into Leading questions as a factor affecting the accuracy of EWT is that it has practical applications. The principle of the theory that leading questions affect EWT has led to improvements in the criminal justice system and the development of the cognitive interview. The cognitive interview avoids using leading questions and instead uses a variety of techniques to increase the accuracy of EWT. For example it uses open questions such as ‘recall everything’ to trigger as much details about the event as possible, increasing the accuracy of EWT without it being contaminated by leading questions. Therefore it is an important part of applied psychology because it could lead to more accurate testimonies and improves the lives of those affected by crime.
AO3: Leading questions - Think further
Moreover, the research could have positive implications on the economy because if more accurate witness testimonies are given this could lead to quicker conviction of the correct perpetrator. This means less tax payers money can be spent on multiple police interviews and re-trials so the money can be used elsewhere to benefit society.
AO3: Leading questions - Lacks mundane realism
A weakness of the research into leading questions on the accuracy of EWT is that it lacks mundane realism. This is because the task of watching a video clip of a car crash is artificial. Therefore it is more difficult to generalise the findings that leading questions affects EWT as Foster et al suggested the witness to a real life crime understand the consequences of recalling inaccurate information whereas people watching a video clip dont have the same motivation. Therefore this reduces the external validity of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT.
