facilitating of learning Flashcards
is a process by which behavior is either modified or changed through experience or training.
Learning
generally fall into two major groups: behavioristic theories and cognitive theories.
Learning theories
contend that “habits” or specific ways of thinking or behaving are learned
The Behaviorist Theories
state that “cognitive structures” or more general ways of thinking are learned.
Cognitive Theories
Learning is seen as a deductive process of working from the general to the specific.
Cognitive Theorist
Sees learning as an inductive process.
Behavioristic or Stimulus-response Theorist
are sets of conjectures and hypotheses that explain the process of learning or how learning takes place.
Theories of Learning
Meat Powder
unconditioned stimulus
Salivating
unconditioned response
Neutral Stimulus
ringing of the bell
conditioned
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory
refers to the process by which the conditioned response transfer to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus generalization
appears to explain the transfer of a response to a situation other than that in which the original learning occurred.
generalization
refers to the process by which we learn not to respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner.
Discrimination
refers to the process by which conditioned responses are lost.
Extinction
which states that if an act is followed by a satisfying change in the environment, the likelihood that the act will be repeated in similar situations increases.
Law of effect
states that when an organism, both human and animal, is ready to form connections to do so is satisfying and not to do so is annoying.
Law of readiness
states that any connection is strengthened in proportion to the number of times it occurs and in proportion to the average vigor and duration of the connection.
Law of exercise
if an individual’s behavior is immediately followed by pleasurable consequences, the individual will engage in that behavior more frequently.
B.F. Skinner Operant Conditioning Theory
is defined as any behavioral consequence that strengthens (that is, increases the frequency of) a behavior.
Reinforcement
are events that are presented after a response has been performed and that increase the behavior or activity they follow.
Positive reinforcers
escapes from unpleasant situations or ways of preventing something unpleasant from occurring.
Negative Reinforcers
are those that satisfy basic human needs. Some examples are food, water, security, warmth, and sex.
Primary Reinforcers
are those that acquire reinforcing power because they have been associated with primary reinforcers.
Secondary Reinforcers
Developed by Albert Bandura, the (blank) accepts most of the principles of the behavioral theories but focuses to a much greater degree on the effects of cues on behavior.
Social Learning Theory
the imitation of others’ behavior and of vicarious – learning from others’ successes and failures.
Modeling
An observer must attend to and recognize the distinctive features of the model’s response because mere exposure to a model does not ensure acquisition of behavior.
Attention
Reproduction of the desired behavior implies that a student symbolically retains the observed behavior.
Retention
Bandura believes that symbolic coding produces internal models of the environment that guide the observer’s future behavior .
Motor Reproduction Processes
Although an observer acquires and retains the ability to perform modeled behavior, there will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable.
Motivational processes
They are concerned with the things that happen inside our heads as we learn. The cognitive approach emphasizes how information is processed.
Cognitive Theories of Learning
The ideas of Bruner who advocated discovery learning, probably have had greater acceptance, at least in schools. His emphasis on discovery and ‘hands on’ learning was in accord with Piaget’s ideas.
Bruner’s Cognitive Learning Theory
where a person learns about the world through actions on objects.
Enactive
where learning occurs through using models and pictures.
Iconic
which describes the capacity to think in abstract terms.
Symbolic
is an instructional approach that provides students with data and then requires them to process this information into meaningful abstractions.
Discovery learning
implies that the material to be learned is potentially meaningful (is appropriate for the student).
Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory or Meaningful Theory
is a general overview of new information to be learned that occurs in advance of the actual reading.
Advance organizer
Robert Gagne built upon behaviorist and cognitive theories to recommend approaches to instruction.
Gagne’s Cognitive Learning Theory
9 recommended approaches to instruction
- gaining attention
- informing the learners of the objective
- stimulating recall of prerequisite learning
- presenting new materials
- providing learning guidance
- eliciting performance
- providing feedback about performance
- assessing performance
- enhancing retention and recall
Six major categories of learning
- gaining attention
- verbal information
- intellectual skills
- cognitive strategies
- motor skills
- attitudes
emphasizes the building (i.e., constructing) that occurs in people’s minds when they learn
Constructivism
is the label given to a set of theories about learning which fall somewhere between cognitive and humanistic views.
Constructivism
which is about how the individual learner understands things in terms of developmental stages and learning styles.
cognitive constructivism
argue that knowledge is actively constructed by learners and that any account of knowledge makes essential references to cognitive structures.
Cognitive constructivist
in his theory of the “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD). (Blank) theory placed considerable emphasis on children’s potential for intellectual growth rather than their intellectual abilities at a particular point in time.
Lev Vygotsky
which emphasizes how meanings and understanding grow out of social encounters.
Social Constructivism
Constructivist teaching and learning principles
- learners have their ideas
- learners need first-hand experience
- learners like their ideas
- learners see what they want to see
- learners often not aware of what they know
6.students need to know how to learn - learners may not discover experts’ conclusion
is the process of absorbing and storing new information in memory, the success of which is often gauged by how well the information can later be remembered (retrieved from memory).
knowledge acquisition
is a method of representing knowledge as a system of connections between concepts in memory. According to the (blank) models, knowledge is organized based on meaning, such that semantically related concepts are interconnected.
Semantic networks
refers to one’s memory for concepts, facts, or episodes
declarative knowledge
refers to the ability to perform various tasks.
procedural knowledge
knowledge acquisition
- process the material semantically
- process and retrieve information frequently
- learning and retrieval conditions should be similar
- connect new information to prior knowledge
- create cognitive procedures
are strategies considered as memory aids that provide a systematic approach for organizing and remembering facts that have no apparent link or connection of their own.
Mnemonics
are statements of what will be achieved as a result of the instruction the teacher is designing.
objectives
This level of cognitive includes memorizing, recognizing or recalling factual information. Objectives at the knowledge level would include verbs such as list, identify, name, recite, state, and define.
Knowledge
At this level of cognition, the emphasis is on organizing, describing, and interpreting concepts. Verbs used in objectives at the comprehension level might include describe, interpret, explain, illustrate, summarize, restate, and defend concepts or information.
comprehension
The (blank) level of cognition requires that the student apply the information presented, solve problems with it, and find new ways of using it. Objective verbs that would represent outcomes at this level of thinking would include apply, classify, demonstrate, discover, predict, show, solve, and compare.
application
This level of taxonomy requires higher-level thinking skills such as finding underlying structures, separating the whole into its components, identifying motives, and recognizing hidden meanings. Verbs used in objectives at this level might include analyze, ascertain, diagram, differentiate, discriminate, examine, determine, classify, investigate, construct, and contrast
analysis
The (blank) level raises desired outcomes to significantly higher levels of cognition. At this level, the students is expected to create an original product based on the knowledge acquired, combine the ideas presented into a new whole or relate knowledge from several areas into a consistent concept. Action verbs in objectives at the synthesis level would include combine, compile, create, design, develop, expand, integrate, extend, originate, synthesis, and formulate.
synthesis
The highest level of cognition in Bloom’s taxonomy is the evaluation level. The learner is expected to make thoughtful value decisions with reference to the knowledge. Objective verbs would include assess, critique, judge, appraise, contrast, evaluate, weigh, and recommend.
evaluation
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
nature of the learning process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
Goals of the learning process.
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
Construction of Knowledge.
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning to achieve complex learning goals.
Strategic thinking
Higher strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
Thinking about thinking
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, culture, technology, and instructional practices.
Context of learning
is thinking about thinking, knowing “what we know” and “what we don’t know”.
Metacognition
is plan for orchestrating cognitive resources, such as attention and long-term memory to help teach a learning goal.
Cognitive learning strategy
appear to share most of these characteristics with the exception of the last one since they involve more universal application through focus upon planning for implementation, monitoring, and evaluation.
metacognitive strategies
refers to some goal-oriented, problem-solving activity.
task
refers to the area within which the task is being performed.
domain
expert systems contains both factual and heuristic knowledge.
knowledge base
is that knowledge of the task domain that is widely shared, typically found in textbooks or journals, and commonly agreed upon by those knowledgeable in the particular field.
Factual knowledge
is that the less rigorous, more experiential, more judgmental knowledge of performance.
heuristic knowledge
formalizes and organizes knowledge.
knowledge representation
What somebody already knows confronted with new information is called
prior knowledge
can be explained as a combination of the learner’s pre-existing attitudes, experiences, and knowledge.
prior knowledge
is a basic human reasoning used in science, literature, art, education and politics.
analogy
the ability to use learning gained in one situation to one another is called
transfer
Transfer is defined as the extent to which learning in one situation influences learning or performance in another.
transfer
This theory asserts that skill or training gained in the study of one subject will improve the performance of the skill in the study of another subject.
theory of mental discipline
This theory formulated by Thorndike states that the amount of transfer depends upon the identical elements present or are common in both learning situations.
theory of identical elements
In Charles Judd’s theory of generalization, experiences in one learning situation can be applied to another learning situation. This theory is similar to the theory of identical elements. However, emphasis is placed on the understanding and recognition of relationships between the generalizations of two learning experiences involved.
theory of generalization
This theory is based on the Gestalt theory of learning. It holds that the transfer of learning from one situation to another is the result of the application of the principles of configuration. Configuration refers to the unified or total pattern of organization of a learning situation so that the components or elements lose their identity.
theory of configuration
are those strategies that can be applied to learning problems, such as paraphrasing, re-reading, estimating, outlining, or guessing from context.
cognitive strategies
include recognizing when a strategy is needed, selecting strategies, memorizing or rehearsing strategies, and assessing the helpfulness of strategies.
metacognitive learning strategies
five keys to facilitating learning
Key # 1. Set the Learning Environment
Key # 2. Activate Prior Learning
Key # 3. Use a Variety of Approaches
Key # 4. Engage Learners in a Dialogue
Key # 5. Reinforce the Learning
