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A2 Biology > F214 > Flashcards

F214 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two states of energy?

A
  • Kinetic energy (energy of motion)

- Potential energy (stored energy)

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2
Q

What is energy?

A
  • The ability to do work
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3
Q

What is metabolism?

A
  • All reactions that take place within an organism
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4
Q

What is anabolism?

A
  • Build up of larger, more complex molecules from smaller, simpler ones
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5
Q

What is catabolism?

A
  • Breakdown of complex molecules into smaller, simpler ones

- Release of energy

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6
Q

Work is:

A
  • Synthesis of complex substances
  • Active transport e.g. Sodium-potassium pump
  • Movement
  • Bioluminescence
  • Maintenance of body temperature
  • Production of electricity
  • Maintenance, repair and division
  • Activation of chemicals
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7
Q

What is the structure of ATP?

A
  • Adenosine:
    • Adenine
    • Ribose Sugar
  • Three phosphate groups
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8
Q

What is the role of ATP?

A
  • ATP is hydrolysed energy and is immediately available in small amounts
  • Universal energy currency
  • ATP is continually being hydrolysed and resynthesised
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9
Q

What is oxidation?

A
  • Loss of electrons

- Loss of hydrogen atoms

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10
Q

What is meant by reduction?

A
  • Gain of electrons

- Gain hydrogen atoms

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11
Q

What is the function of Coenzyme A?

A
  • To carry ethanoate (acetate) groups made in the link reaction, onto the Krebs cycle
  • To carry acetate groups made from fatty acids or amino acids onto the Krebs cycle
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12
Q

How is the Mitochondria specialised for its function?

A 
Matrix:
- Contains NAD
- Oxaloacetate for Krebs Cycle 
- Enzymes that catalyse reactions
Inner Membrane:
- Folded into Cristae (increasing surface area)
- Impermeable to most small ions 
- ATP synthase embedded
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13
Q

Link reaction process

A

Pyruvate ->(Loses 2H + CO2 - Dehydrogenated + Decarboxylation) Acetyl CoA -> Acetate

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14
Q

Krebs cycle process

A

Acetate -> Citrate(6C)(Loses 2NADH + CO2) 5C compound -> (Loses 2NADH + CO2) -> 4C compound -> (Loses ATP) -> 4C compound -> (Loses FADH) -> 4C compound -> (Loses NAD) -> Oxaloacetate (Reacts with acetate and cycle continues)

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15
Q

What are the products of the link reaction?

A
  • 2CO2
  • 2 NADH
  • 2 Acetyl CoA
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16
Q

What are the products of Glycolysis?

A
  • 4 ATP (net profit of 2 ATP)
  • 2 ADP
  • 2 NADH
  • 2 Pyruvate
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17
Q

What are the products of the Krebs cycle?

A
  • 4 CO2
  • 2 ATP
  • 6 NADH
  • 2 FADH
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18
Q

What is the primary pigment reaction centre?

A
  • Chlorophyll A
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19
Q

2 examples of accessory pigments:

A
  • Carotene (Carotenoids)

- Xanothophyll

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20
Q

What is cyclic photophosphorylation?

A
  • Light strikes PSI
  • This causes electrons to be released
  • Electrons go to an electron carrier
  • Energy from electrons can be used to pump H+ ions through
  • This creates small amounts of ATP
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21
Q

What is excretion?

A

The removal of metabolic waste from the body

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22
Q

What are kuppfer cells?

A

Break down toxins and old red blood cells

- Make bilirubin

23
Q

What is a stimulus?

A
  • A change in the environment that causes a response
24
Q

What is homeostasis?

A
  • The maintenance of the internal environment, despite external changes
25
Q

What is positive and negative feedback?

A
  • Positive feedback increases any change away from normal

- Negative feedback reverses any change back to normal (essential for homeostasis)

26
Q

What is a sensory neurone?

A
  • A transducer: they convert another type of energy into electrical energy
27
Q

How does an action potential begin?

A
  • Voltage-gated calcium channels open
  • Ca2+ ions diffuses into synaptic knob
  • Synaptic vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane
  • Acetylcholine diffuses across synaptic cleft
  • Acetylcholine bonds to sodium channel receptors on Postsynaptic knob
  • Na+ ions diffuse into postsynaptic membrane
  • Acetylcholinesterase stops action potential
28
Q

What is summation?

A
  • Combination of action potentials
29
Q

How does an action potential begin?

A
  • Voltage-gated calcium channels open
  • Ca2+ ions diffuses into synaptic knob
  • Synaptic vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane
  • Acetylcholine diffuses across synaptic cleft
  • Acetylcholine bonds to sodium channel receptors on Postsynaptic knob
  • Na+ ions diffuse into postsynaptic membrane
  • Acetylcholinesterase stops action potential
30
Q

What is summation?

A
  • Combination of action potentials
31
Q

What is the structure of a motor neurone?

A
  • A cell body at the end with a large nucleus and lots of rough ER and golds bodies
  • Many short dendrites that carry impulses to the cell body
  • A long axon which carries an impulse from cell body to effector
32
Q

What is the structure of a sensory neurone?

A
  • Long processes on either side of the cell body
  • A dendron carrying nerve impulses from a receptor to the cell body
  • An axon carrying an impulse from the cell body to the central nervous system (CNS)
33
Q

What does Glucagon do?

A
  • Stored glycogen is turned into glucose (Glucogenolysis)
  • More fatty acids are respired
  • Amino acids and lipids are converted into glucose (Gluconeogensis)
  • glucagon also inhibits insulin secretion
34
Q

What does insulin do?

A
  • More glucose channels are added into target cells (hepatocytes), this means more glucose is entering the cell
  • Glucose turns into glycogen (Glycogenesis)
  • Glucose converted into lipids
  • More glucose is used in respiration
35
Q

What is excretion?

A

Removal of unwanted waste products of metabolism

36
Q

What is metabolic waste?

A

Waste substances produced in excess by reactions inside cells

37
Q

What is deamination?

A

Removal of amine group from amino acid

- Produces ammonia

38
Q

Why does Carbon dioxide need to be removed?

A
  • Reduces oxygen being transported

- Lowers haemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen

39
Q

The kidney:

A
  • Gets blood from renal artery
  • Blood taken away by renal vein
  • Made up of 4 parts; proximal convoluted tubule, distal convoluted tubule, loop of henle and collecting duct
40
Q

What is the nephron?

A

Tubules associated with blood capillaries starting at cortex

41
Q

Ultrafiltration:

A
  • Blood flows into glomerulus from afferent arteriole
  • Leaves via efferent arteriole
  • Difference in diameters causes blood to move at high pressure
42
Q

What is the three layer membrane in ultrafiltration?

A
  • Endothelium of capillary: Narrow gaps between cells; blood plasma & dissolved substances can pass through
  • Basement membrane: Fine mesh collagen fibres & glycoproteins act as a filter, prevents molecules with a relative molecular mass greater than 69k
  • Podocytes: Finger-like projections
43
Q

What is selective reabsorption?

A

• As fluid moves along the nephron, substances removed from fluid & reabsorbed into blood

  • Most occurs in PCT: all water/glucose reabsorbed
  • Microvilli present: increases surface area for reabsorption
  • Mitochondria indicates active process (ATP present)
44
Q

What is Osmoregulation?

A

• The control of water and salt levels in body

- Correct water balance between cells & surrounding fluid maintained prevent problems during osmosis

45
Q

How do we control the levels of salt and water in the body?

A
  • Water gain: Food, drink + metabolism

* Water loss: Urine, sweat, water vapour in exhaled air + faeces

46
Q

Alternating permeability in Osmoregulation:

A
  • More ADH (antidiurectic hormone) = More aquaporins = More water reabsorbed into blood = Less urine
  • Less ADH = Less aquaporins = walls less permeable = Less water reabsorbed = more water is excreted as urine
47
Q

ADH concentration in blood:

A
  • Water potential in blood monitored by osmoreceptor in hypothalamus
  • When water potential is low: cells lose water + shrink, stimulating neurosecretory cells
  • Neurosecretory cells release ADH made in body + flows down axon to posterior pituitary gland, where stored until required
48
Q

What is kidney failure?

A
  • When a kidney can no longer remove excess water/waste products
  • Body cannot regulate water + salt levels = Death
49
Q

Common causes of kidney failure:

A
  • Diabetes Mellitus
  • Hypertension
  • Infection
50
Q

How can kidney failure be treated?

A
  • Dialysis
51
Q

How does dialysis work?

A
  • Removes waste fluid + salt by passing over dialysis membrane
  • Partially permeable allows exchange substances between blood and dialysis fluid
  • Fluid (Has the correct concentration)
  • Excess substances will diffuse across membrane into dialysis fluid
52
Q

2 types of dialysis:

A
  • Haemodialysis

- Peritoneal dialysis

53
Q

What is Haemodialysis?

A
  • Blood from vein passed into machine
  • Herapin added avoid clotting
  • Bubbles removed before blood returns to body
  • Performed at clinic 3 times a week (for several hours)
54
Q

What is peritoneal dialysis?

A
  • Surgeon implants permanent tube in abdomen + dialysis solution added
  • Used solution drained after several hours
  • Daily sessions performed
  • Patient can walk around freely

A2 Biology (3 decks)

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