Eye-Witness Testimony

Question 1

What is EWT?

(Eyewitness testimony)

Answer 1

A legal term for the evidence given in a court or in police investigations by someone who has witnessed a crime or accident and recounts the details from memory.

Question 2

What did ‘The Innocence Project’ state about EWT?

(Eyewitness testimony)

Answer 2

The Innocence Project says that EWT is the single greatest factor in wrongful convictions.

“Judges, defence attorneys and psychologists believe it to be just about the least trustworthy kind of evidence of guilt, whereas jurors have always found it more persuasive than any other sort of evidence”.

Question 3

Give 2 reasons as to why EWT is important?

(Eyewitness testimony)

Answer 3

EWT is an important area of study in cognitive psychology and memory studies.

EWT is used as evidence in criminal trials all over the world and juries tend to pay extra attention to EWT and see them as trustworthy, reliable and convincing.

Research has shown that EWT can be affected by many psychological factors.

Question 4

What are the 3 stages of EWT?

(Eyewitness testimony)

Answer 4

Encode: this may be partial.

Storage: memories may be modified whilst in storage.

Retrieval: reconstruction of memories may be influenced.

Question 5

How are DNA tests used in criminology?

(DNA testing)

Answer 5

Used to establish with virtual certainty who was responsible (or not responsible) for certain crimes.

Question 6

Due to DNA testing, there have now been how many criminals exonerated post-conviction? How many years have most served before exoneration?

(DNA testing)

Answer 6

Due to DNA testing, there have now been 334 post-conviction.

Most of those exonerated by DNA in the US have already served more than 10 years.

Question 7

Is memory recall 100% accurate?

(Reconstructive Memory and Errors)

Answer 7

No, human memory does not store info exactly as it was presented to us.

Our memory does not work like a videotape.

Question 8

How does human memory gather information?

(Reconstructive Memory and Errors)

Answer 8

We gather information from the ‘gist’ of things or underlying meanings.

We make sense of information and try to fit them into schemas.

Question 9

How do schemas aid memory?

(Reconstructive Memory and Errors)

Answer 9

Allow us to make sense of what we encounter so we can predict what is going to happen and what we should do.

Question 10

What are schemas?

(Reconstructive Memory and Errors)

Answer 10

Cognitive short-cuts.

Question 11

How are schemas effective in human memory?

(Reconstructive Memory and Errors)

Answer 11

Effective because they remove the need to store similar information more than once.

E.g. Kitchen schema - helps us make sense of the world by ‘filling in gaps’ in our knowledge and by simplifying the processing of information.

Question 12

Schemas are beneficial for human memory. How is this not useful for EWT?

(Reconstructive Memory and Errors)

Answer 12

Memories that may be partial may be influenced by false information; in order to fit with a potential schema.

You are then not recalling facts.

The impact of schematic knowledge means that what we recall is sometimes in error - consistent with our own schemas.

Question 13

What did Sir Frederic Bartlett state in 1932?

(Reconstructive Memory and Errors)

Answer 13

That memory doesn’t just involve remembering information presented to us - our prior knowledge influences what we remember and how.

Stereotypes -> discrimination -> bias.

Question 14

Outline Tuckey and Brewer’s study from 2003.

(Supports the idea that schemas influence reconstructive memory)
(Reconstructive Memory and Errors)

Answer 14

Supports the idea that schemas influence reconstructive memory.

They obtained information about people’s bank robbery schema and had eyewitnesses recall the details of a simulated crime they observed - (made to be particularly ambiguous).

They tended to interpret ambiguous information as being consistent with their schema of crime - resulting in memory errors.

This suggests that schemas can be dangerous - potentially imprisoning an innocent person.

Question 15

Outline the case study of Ron Cotton.

(Reconstructive Memory and Errors)

Answer 15

Cotton’s accuser trusted her schema too much - even after she was told he didn’t do it.

This may have been due to anger, and wanting to blame someone for her hurt as quick as possible (emotional blindness).

Her schema may also have corrupted; her thoughts of the event, as she wasn’t able to unsee Ron Cotton as the abuser - even after when she knew it wasn’t him.

This shows how memory can be easily contaminated.

Question 16

Outline Bartlett’s ‘War of the Ghosts’ study from 1932.

(Supports the idea that schemas influence reconstructive memory)
(Reconstructive Memory and Errors)

Answer 16

Supports the idea that schemas influence reconstructive memory.

This is because he found that when 20 students were asked to recite a piece of native fiction, in different time delays after original reading, they shortened, rationalised, and changes details, and switched the meaning to fit their own opinions.

This suggests that personal experience and knowledge can contaminate reconstructive memory.

Moreover, it also shows how Native American cultural norms were change to align with British cultural norms - perhaps due to familiarity.

Question 17

In Bartlett’s ‘War of the Ghosts’ study from 1932, some participants shortened the story from 330 words to how many words?

(Reconstructive Memory and Errors)

Answer 17

180 words.

Question 18

What is a leading question?

(Misleading Information, (including leading questions and post event discussion))

Answer 18

A question phrased in such a way as prompt a particular kind of answer.

Question 19

What is misleading information?

(Misleading Information, (including leading questions and post event discussion))

Answer 19

Information that suggests a desired response.

Question 20

What is post-event discussion?

(Misleading Information, (including leading questions and post event discussion))

Answer 20

Information added to a memory after the event has occurred.

Question 21

Loftus furthered Bartlett’s work, stating what?

Answer 21

Witnesses to crimes create reconstructions of the crime based on their own schematic understanding of the world.

Loftus took this idea further and suggested that any new information about the crime (media, other witness statements, leading questions) had the potential to distort their recall of events.

Question 22

What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer’s 1974 study?

(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 22

To investigate how information provided to a witness after an event will influence their memory of that event.

Question 23

Outline the procedure for Loftus and Palmer’s 1974 study.

(Experiment one)
(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 23

45 students were shown short video clips.

They were split into 5 groups, with 9 participants in each one.

All of the participants were asked, “About how fast were the cars going when they _____ each other”.

Each group was given a different verb to fill in the blank.

These verbs were ‘smashed, collided, bumped, hit or contacted’.

Question 24

What was the IV and the DV in Loftus and Palmer’s study?

(Experiment one)
(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 24

The dependent variable was the speed in mph.

The independent variable was the verb used.

Question 25

What were the findings from Loftus and Palmer’s study?

(Experiment one)
(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 25

Smash: 40.8 mph (mean estimate of speed).
This was the highest.

Contact: 31.8 mph (mean estimate of speed).
This was the lowest.

As the intensity of the verb used in the key question increased, so did the estimation of the speed of the cars.

Question 26

Outline the procedure for Loftus and Palmer’s 1974 study.

(Experiment two)
(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 26

150 student PPs were shown a short film that showed a multi-vehicle car accident and then they were asked questions about it.

The PPs were split into 3 groups (with 50 in each group).

One group was asked, “How fast were the car going when they hit each other?”.

The second was asked, “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”.

The third group was not asked anything.

A week later, all PPs returned and were asked, “Did you see any broken glass?”

There was no broken glass in the film.

Question 27

What were the findings from Loftus and Palmer’s study?

(Experiment two)
(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 27

The verb used in the original question influenced whether broken glass was seen.

Participants were twice as likely in the ‘smashed’ condition to recall the false memory of broken glass.

32% from the ‘smash’ group said they saw broken glass.
14% from the ‘hit’ group said they saw broken glass.
12% from the ‘control’ group said they saw broken glass.

Question 28

Loftus and Palmer believed that two factors influenced participants. What were they? Explain.

(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 28

Response Bias:
Critical verb influenced car speed.

Memory is altered:
Critical verb alters memory.
Crash seen potentially more or less severe.

Question 29

What is a response bias?

(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 29

When PPs do not answer questions truthfully for some reason.

Question 30

In order to prove that memory had been altered, Loftus and Palmer used their second experiment. What did the second experiment demonstrate?

(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 30

The findings in ‘Experiment Two’ were due to a response bias, as all PPs were all asked if they had seen any broken glass.

This suggests that the leading question altered the PPs memory of the event.

Question 31

Loftus and Palmer suggest that 2 kinds of information go into a person’s memory for an event. What are they?

(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 31

The person’s own perception.

Information supplied after the event (such as leading questions).

Question 32

Using ‘ecological validity’, evaluate Loftus and Palmer’s 1974 study.

(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 32

Laboratory experiments, so not natural.

PPs may have been paying more attention to the video than they would have in real-life.

Did the video have sound? Broken glass would then be more noticeable if it did.

Question 33

Using ‘participants’, evaluate Loftus and Palmer’s 1974 study.

(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 33

Sample was only made from students, many of which can’t drive, so there ability to estimate speed may be different.

Different schemas for different ages, extrapolation should be cautious.

Question 34

Using ‘usefulness’, evaluate Loftus and Palmer’s 1974 study.

(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 34

Highly useful, as it is able to render EWT less influential, thus less innocent people will be imprisoned.

Highlights the importance of schemas and leading questions. E.g. police questioning.

Question 35

Evaluate Loftus and Palmer’s 1974 study. Give 2 general other issues.

(Reconstruction of automobile destruction, Loftus and Palmer)

Answer 35

How easy is it to estimate speed? It may be easier for some groups e.g. due to their occupation.

Driver of the car may not have been shown in the video - potential perception change.

Type of car? Potential perception change.

Ethical implications, such as psychological damage created by exposure to the potential triggers of a crash.

Question 36

What are situational factors?

(Anxiety and Stress)

Answer 36

Factors that depend on the scene that the person is within.

Question 37

What are dispositional factors?

(Anxiety and Stress)

Answer 37

Factors that depend on the emotions that the person is feeling.

Question 38

Eyewitnesses (especially if they are victims) are often very anxious when witnessing a crime. Why is this important?

Answer 38

Information that is ‘attended to’ is more remembered than ‘non-attended to’ information - but this amount is different for every crime.

Some people have anxious personalities - therefore individual differences may affect recall.

Question 39

What was the first condition in Loftus et al’s 1979 study?

Answer 39

Participants overheard a hostile and aggressive argument between two people, followed by one of them holding a knife/ letter opener covered in blood.

Question 40

What was the second condition in Loftus et al’s 1979 study?

Answer 40

Overheard a harmless conversation between two people followed by one of them emerging holding a pen with greasy hands.

Question 41

What was found from Loftus et al’s 1979 study?

Answer 41

When PPs tried to identify the culprit from the photographs:

33% in the first condition.
49% in the second condition

Question 42

What did Loftus et al conclude from their 1979 study?

Answer 42

Anxiety elicited by the weapon (i.e. blood stained knife) narrowed the focus of attention for the witness and took attention away from the face of the man.

Question 43

What is weapon focus? What type of explanation is this?

Answer 43

Eyewitnesses paying high levels of attention to the weapon but no other information.

This is a situational explanation.

Question 44

In Loftus et al’s 1987 study, PPs watched one of two sequences. What were they?

Answer 44

A person pointing a gun at a cashier and receiving some cash.

A person passing a cheque to the cashier and receiving some cash.

Question 45

What was found from Loftus et al’s 1987 study?

Answer 45

Eyewitnesses looked more at the gun than at the cheque.

As a result memory details unrelated to the gun/ cheque were poorer in the weapon condition.

Question 46

What was concluded from Loftus et al’s study?

Answer 46

Heightened anxiety and stress has a negative impact on eyewitnesses identification accuracy.

Question 47

Outline Pickel’s study from 1999.

(Challenges Loftus’ idea of weapon focus)
(AO3 for Weapon Focus)

Answer 47

Challenges Loftus’ idea of weapon focus.

This is because they found no evidence of weapon focus when eyewitnesses saw someone pointing a gun in a situation where guns were expected.

This suggests that weapon focus cannot explain are situations, and other explanations are needed.

Question 48

Outline Valentine et al’s study from 2003.

(Challenges Loftus’ idea of weapon focus)
(AO3 for Weapon Focus)

Answer 48

Challenges Loftus’ idea of weapon focus.

This is because when they considered evidence from over 300 line-ups, they found that the presence of a weapon had no effect on the probability of an eyewitness identifying the suspect.

This suggests that weapon focus cannot explain are situations, and other explanations are needed.

Question 49

Outline ‘The Inverted U Theory of Arousal’ by Yerkes and Dodson, (1908).

(Supports weapon focus as an affecter of recall)
(AO3 for Weapon Focus)

Answer 49

Supports weapon focus as an affecter of recall.

This is because it states that when anxiety become too great (e.g. seeing a weapon), performance becomes impaired.

This suggests that weapon focus has the potential to render EWT irrelevant.

Question 50

Outline Bothwell et al’s study from 1987.

(Supports the idea that personality and innate biological factors influence anxiety in EWT)

Answer 50

Supports the idea that personality and innate biological factors influence anxiety in EWT.

This is because they compared groups of PPs low and high in the personality dimension of neuroticism: combined with high and low situation stress situations.

They found that people who have a high level of neuroticism, partnered with a highly stressful situation will have a worse memory recall.

This suggests that individual differences influence stress.

Question 51

What is neuroticism?

Answer 51

A personality trait characterised by emotional instability, anxiety, depression, and other negative feelings.

Question 52

Outline Deffenbacher et al’s study from 2004.

(Supports the idea that situational factors influence EWT)

Answer 52

Supports the idea that situational factors influence EWT.

They found that face identification was greater in participants experiencing an environment with low stress, than those in high stress environments: (54% > 42%).

Participants in the low stress environment also recalled more correct culprit details of the crime: (64% > 52%).

This suggests that situational factors such as the witnesses environment contribute to recall.

However, the study was a meta-analysis, so findings may be subject to bias. It must also be considered if all studies operationalised variables in the same way (if not validity is weakened).

Question 53

Why/ how might experiments exaggerate the inaccuracy of EWT?

Answer 53

Individual differences.

Lacks mundane realism, as crimes are not planned for observation.

If a video is watched it may feel secondary and artificial.

Many are completed in a laboratory:

Question 54

Most EWT studies are laboratory experiments. How could this be improved? Why would this be an improvement?

Answer 54

It may be more realistic if performed as a natural experiment, as people will be less aware.

More control.
PPs more likely to pay more attention.
Observers are not a victim (proximity/ involvement).
Dependent on whether PPs believe the experiment, may lack experimental realism (evaluation apprehension).

Question 55

Outline Rinolio et al’s study from 2003.

(Challenges Yerkes and Dodson’s Inverted U Theory of Arousal)

Answer 55

Challenges Yerkes and Dodson’s Inverted U Theory of Arousal.

This is because when investigating 20 PPs into whether the Titanic split in half, or stayed intact when it sank, they found that 75% stated it broke in half, and 25% said it had been intact.

The majority had recalled the event accurately, even though there were traumatic events.

This suggests that not all highly emotionally arousing situations impact recalled.