external forces Flashcards
How can you learn emotions through conditioning?
emotional conditioning: Little Albert (Watson and his wife): Albert is presented with several animals; each time he tried to pet them a loud bang on a gong would be played; in this way, every time he saw an animal or something similar to an animal he would have an emotional arousal.
lil albert experiment
How does conditioning lead to a behaviour?
by making associations between stimuli and behaviors
How does operant conditioning work?
requires u to do something. its active conditioning as opposed to classical. so basically its a type of learning based on consequences produced by a response
How to optimise the reinforcement schedule to get desired behaviour?
behaviorism
Behaviorism is about what’s in the environment. Behaviorists ask about how environmental factors causally determine people’s behavior.
environmental determinism
The belief in environmental determinism has additional implications. One is that it highlights the potentialsituational specificityof behavior. Since environmental factors are the causes of behavior, people’s behavioral style is expected to vary significantly from one environment to another. behaviorists expect that there will be substantial variability in action as people adapt to situations that present different rewards and punishments for different types of behavior.
regarding behvaiorists, psychopathology is not understood as an internal problem (illness in the mind) but instead ….
Instead, the behavior- ist assumes that maladaptive, “abnormal” behavior is caused by maladaptive environments to which the person has been exposed.
in simple terms, what is conditioning
process of learning to associate certain stimuli to a response to elicit certain behavior
- learning of behavior through external stimuli
Ian pavlov’s classical conditioning (1849-1936)
a process in which a stimulus that initially is neutral (i.e., that the organism initially does not respond to in any significant manner) eventually elicits a strong response. It elicits the response because the neutral stimulus becomes associated with some other stimulus that does produce a response. The process in which the organism learns to respond to the stimulus that originally was neutral is known as conditioning.
- associating 1 stimulus with another
- unconditioned stimulus (dog getting food) -> Unconditioned response
- conditioned stimulus (bell when fed) -> conditioned response
Stage 1: a neutral stimulus (US) causes an automatic, built-in response (UR)
Stage 2: Conditioning: New stimulus (CS) occurs before US, cause a conditioned response.
Eventually, CS and CR act like another reflex
extinction
when a CS appears repeatedly without the US. (bell being rang without presenting food after).
for a little while, CS still uses CR to make the association but after a while, it stops associating the two
generalization
- occurs when an organism’s response previously conditioned by one stimulus can then be evoked by another stimulus having similar characteristics. In other words, the salivation response to the bell would generalize to other sounds.
- In the famousLittle Albert experiment, ayoung boy was conditioned to fear a white rat, but he displayed the fear response upon the presentation of similar white, furry objects.
discrimination
- If repeated trials indicate that only some stimuli are followed by the unconditioned stimulus, the animal recognizes differences among stimuli, a process calleddiscrimination.
- An example of stimulus discrimination would have been if the little boy in the experiment had distinguished between the white rat and other white, furry objects.
higher order conditioning
- Higher order conditioning is a form of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a conditioned stimulus, that is already associated with a desired response through conditioning, to become another conditioned stimulus itself.
- red light help you sleep -> change the red light into candles -> candles then help you sleep
[look at pic on lila’s notion]
- red light help you sleep -> change the red light into candles -> candles then help you sleep
classical conditioning but reflex is already a CR
CS and CR become automatic (dog salivates either to bell or light)
Adding a NS to an existing CR
NS, US, CS, UR, CR
NS: (Neutral Stimulus)= stimulus that leads to no response (bell)
US (Unconditioned stimulus)= leads to response without conditioning (food)
CS (Conditioned Stimulus)= used to be NS but becomes CS with the association with UR
UR (Unconditioned Response)= response that comes automatically without conditioning (salivating)
CR (Conditioned response)= learned response to CS
spontaneous recovery
there exists extinction, but CR cannot disappear forever; it can come back → spontaneous recovery)
counter conditioning
conditioned stimulus to get rid of the first CR of that stimulus
systematic desensitization
way to use counter conditioning; learning a new response that is physiologically compatible with a new response, in a hierarchical manner; deep body relaxation can cure anxiety
operant/ instrumental conditioning
control someone’s behaviour through rewards and punishments
Operant conditioning is active (actively take or give something)
Classical conditioning is passive
law of effect
linking outcome, action and change in likelihood of future action (if behaviour is followed by a more satisfactory outcome the behaviour is more likely to happen)
all the lil components of instrumental conditioning
External observable behaviour:
Simple: salvation
Complex: maths
Operant: smth that comes from organism but not from outside world; cannot be associated to any stimuli
Reinforcer: smth that follows the response in order to increase/ decrease probability
Primary reinforcer: satisfy your needs (biological or social)
Secondary reinforcer: acquires reinforcement by being associated with primary reinforcer over time
Punisher: unpleasant outcome; reduces tendency for behaviour to happen; weakens operant behaviour
Positive reinforcement: chocolate
Negative reinforcement: getting good grades → less homework
Negative Punishment: taking something good away (phone)
Positive punishment: something bad is added (extra chore)
discrimination
generalisation
extinction
schedule of positive reinforcement: partial reinforcement
behaviour is followed by a reinforcer only some of the time; more resistant to extinction; better if you want people to maintain behaviour but is longer to learn
Time base: reinforcement occur after a certain period of time
Response based: reinforcement happens after a number of responses
schedule of positive reinforcement: continuous reinforcement
behaviour is followed by a reinforcer every single time; behaviour is learned faster but easier to eliminate
shaping successive approximation
Using step by step methods to get an individual to do a certain behaviour
self reinforcement and social reinforcement
self: approving/ disapproving your own behaviour and reinforcing yourself accordingly
social: positive affect from social cues that indicate (un)desirable cues
behavior pathology
when people learn behaviour not typically accepted by society (response pattern)
behavioral deficit
trouble adapting to reinforcement and this affects whole life
depression
response to positive reinforcement being withdrawn from our life
maladaptive response
unacceptable response depending on context; wrong behaviour
Not being reinforced for adaptive behaviour
Being reinforced for maladaptive behaviour
Being reinforced in a bad situation for an adaptive behaviour
positive behaviorism
undamental learning of behaviour
-easy to measure
-highly comprehensive
-lots of research
-variables can be operationalized
-recognizes roles of the environment
negative behaviorism
too much animal research
-disregards biological factors
-often only performed in labs (low ecological validity)
-ignores cognition
-only looks at observable behaviour (simple behaviour)
purpose of the lil albert experiment
The Little Albert experiment presents an example of how classical conditioning can be used to condition an emotional response. conditioned emotional reaction
Watson and Rayner also observed that stimulus generalization had occurred in the Little Albert Experiment, how could they tell?
- the fear DID transfer to other animals and also fur coat, mask
- the effect lasts at least more than a month
how does classical conditioining relate to drug overdoses and what can it further explain?
- drug overdose: have environment change (room) -> tolerance to drug is lowered (than usual) -> more likely to be overdose
=> Thus, classical conditioning may help explain the development, maintenance, and disappearance of our emotional reactions thus shaping our personalities (likes-dislikes)
watson’s behaviorism
Founder of behaviorism. Watson’s behaviorist theoryfocused not on the internal emotional and psychological conditions of people, but rather on their external and outward behaviors
He believed that a person’s physical responses provided the only insight into internal actions.
Based his work on Pavlov.
how can we uncondition fears
- Jone’s study on Peter
- introduce positive and conditioned negative stimulus -> less fear of negative stimulus
- Wolpe’s Systematic Desensitization: systematic desensitizationwas designed to inhibit anxiety throughcounterconditioning
- teach patient how to relax -> create stress
- make a hierarchical list of (non)stressful situations -> walk through them -> reduce stress gradually
skinners operant conditioning
- Operant conditioning: how probable behaviors occur with different reinforcers. the control of behavior through manipulation of rewards and punishments in the environment
- Situational specificity: all situations are specific -> change of situation leads to change of behavior
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior: neutral operants
responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior: reinforcers
Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior: punishers
Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishm ent weakens behavior.
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior: primary
diminishes biological and social need
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior: secondary
acquired reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior: generalized reinforcers
stimulus that is associated with multiple other stimuli -> it is universal/general (e.g. money associated with many other things)
positive reinforcement
giving a pleasant stimulus after a behavioral response. leads to increase in frequency of the response.
e.g someone says they love your dress which results in you wearing it more
negative reinforcement
taking away an unpleasant stimulus after a desired behavior. if taking off an itchy sweater makes you feel comfy, you’ll probably wear it less
positive punishment
giving an unpleasant stimulus after behavior to decrease the frequency of behavior
negative punishment
removing a pleasant stimulus after a behavior. e.g taking a child’s toy away
what are types of schedules
Behaviorists discovered that different patterns(or schedules) of reinforcementhad different effects on the speed of learning and extinction. Ferster and Skinner (1957) devised different ways of delivering reinforcement and found that this had effects on
1.The Response Rate- The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e., how hard the rat worked).
2.The Extinction Rate- The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e., how soon the rat gave up).
response based schedule
reinforcer after certain amount of behaviors acted (e.g. reward after each chore done) fixed: reward for every 3 chores; variable: reward after 2/3/4/.. chores - random number
time based schedule
- reinforcer after certain amount of time (e.g. reward once a week for chores) fixed: reward once a week; variable: reward after some time - random amount of time
=> Fixed and response based schedule is most effective when teaching new behavior
schedules of reinforcement other name: fixed ratio and fixed interval
fixed ratio: reinforcement provided after fixed amount of responses
schedules of reinforcement other name: variable ratio and variable interval
variable ratio: reinforcement when random number of responses done
variable interval: different time span
how does continuous reinforcement affect the response rate and extinction rate
Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs only sometimes (variable) or a fixed, specified number of times. e.g., one reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly.
- Response rate is FAST
- Extinction rate is MEDIUM
fixed interval reinforcement effect on response rate and extinction rate
One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made. An example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be every 15 minutes (half hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has been made) then food delivery is shut off.
- Response rate is MEDIUM
- Extinction rate is MEDIUM
D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement:
behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For examples gambling or fishing.
Response rate is FAST
Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability)
(E) Variable Interval Reinforcement
Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes. An example is a self-employed person being paid at unpredictable times.
- Response rate is FAST
- Extinction rate is SLOW
shaping behavior
give reward every time your target get close to the desired behavior - closer, more reward => SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION
Causes of “faulty”/superstitious behavior according to Skinner: always need accidental stimulus associated with the desired outcome
Skinner on free will: we don’t have free will to make choices/behaviors
Law of Effect Edward L. Thorndike
those behavioral responses that were most closely followed by a satisfying result were most likely to become established patterns and to occur again in response to the same stimulus
- habit hierarchy: several events, the one that gets most rewards most likely to be repeated
- shifts over time because outcome pattern shifts
