Explanations for nicotine addiction: Learning theory Flashcards
Operant conditioning: Biological positive reinforcement
- mild euphoria
Nicotine activate in the mesolimbic system which causes the release of dopamine into the nucleus accumbens, which is experienced as a reward by the brain
Smoking creates feelings of mild euphoria -> positively reinforce smoking behaviour
This explains why people start smoking
Operant conditioning: Biological negative reinforcement-
- avoid withdrawal symptoms
Withdrawal of nicotine will trigger physiological discomfort (withdrawal symptoms) such as disturbed sleep, agitation, poor concentration and mood disturbances
Therefore addiction is maintained because smoking another cigarette is negatively reinforcing, stops unpleasant stimulus (withdrawal symptoms)
Cue reactivity (classical conditioning): Primary reinforcer
Smoking is intrinsically rewarding
Doesn’t have to be learned because of the biologically determined effects of nicotine on DA reward system
Pleasure created by nicotine reinforces behaviour -> individual is more likely to smoke again
Cue reactivity: Secondary reinforcer
Any other stimuli present at the same time as smoking becomes associated with the pleasurable effect of smoking i.e classical conditioning
- stimuli become secondary reinforcers (rewarding in their own right)
Certain environments e.g pubs, certain people or objects (lighters) create sense of anticipation and pleasure
Even the seemingly harsh feeling of smoke hitting the back of the throat can become a secondary reinforcer - associated with pleasurable impact of nicotine
Describe the 3 elements of cue reactivity
Secondary reinforcers can also act as cues, presence produces similar response to nicotine itself
Cravings are triggered by cues related to smoking…
1) Self reported desire to smoke
2) Physiological signs of reactivity to a cue (e.g heart rate)
3) Objective behavioural indicators when cue is present (e.g how many draws taken on the cigarette)
State 3 strengths of learning theory as an explanation for nicotine addiction
Animal studies
Support for cue reactivity from human research
Real world application
EVALUATION: Animal studies
Studies on non-human animals, such as the one by Levin et alwhereby the study of rateswere able to lick two water spouts, confirm the role of operant conditioning in nicotine addiction.
An intravenous nicotine dose was activated by licking one (the other had no effect). The rats licked the nicotine-linked spout far more frequently, and over the course of 24 sessions, their licking increased.
This implies that the effects of nicotine in rats positively promote self-administration, suggesting a mechanism similar to that found in humans.
EVALUATION: Support for cue reactivity from human research
A meta-analysis of 41 research on cue reactivity was conducted by Carter and Tiffany. Images of smoking-related cues, such as lighters, were shown to smokers and non-smokers in studies.
In response, dependent smokers showed elevated physiological arousal (heart rate) and strong desires to smoke, even in the absence of nicotine.
This demonstrates how dependent smokers learnsecondary associationsbetween stimuli associated with smoking and the enjoyable aspects of smoking.
EVALUATION: Real world application
People undergoing aversion therapy, which is based on classical conditioning, must learn to associate an unpleasant stimulus—such as an electric shock—with the pleasurable effects of smoking.
According to Smith, 52% of those who used aversion after one ear continued to abstain, compared to 20–25% of those who had just decided to quit smoking.
Treatments based on learning theory can thereby improve health, save NHS resources, and ultimately save lives.
COUNTERPOINT
There was no control/placebo group and the comparison made was not a valid measure of effectiveness. The benefits of aversion therapy are also short lived (Hajek and Stead)
This suggests that counterconditioning may not be an effective method of addiction treatment
EVALUATION: Nomothetic approach
Nomothetic approaches are those that focus on explaining behaviour through general laws that apply to whole populations.
The learning theory of explaining smoking behaviour is nomothetic, so does not take into account individual differences.
EVALUATION: Nature and Nurture
People may have genetics (nature) that make them more likely to be predisposed to addiction. But they may also have role models (environment/nurture) from which to imitate behaviour.
The majority of psychologists believe that most human behaviour, including addiction, is likely caused by the interaction of nature and nurture.
Overall, addiction to cigarettes is likely to be a combination of brain neurochemistry (biochemical), genetics and social learning.
Biochemical and genetic factors fall on the nature side of the debate, while social learning falls on the nurture side of the debate.
