Explaining Class Differences In Achievement [Inside and Outside Of School Factors]

Question 1

Becker (1971)

Answer 1

Found that teachers see middle class pupils as closest to the “ideal pupil” in terms of performance, conduct, appearance and attitude. Whilst working class are furthest away from this. Interactionalists argue that labels that are applied to students shape the interactions that will be had between the student and pupil. Teachers consciously or unconsciously communicate these labels to students, the student will then react to either positively or negatively and this may create a “self fulfilling prophecy” meaning the students will internalise and conform to the label given. Therefore this could negatively affect working class students as they may be labelled as non achievers or deviant leading them to conform to this.

Question 2

Keddie (1971)

Answer 2

Researched streaming (grouping of student based on ability) found evidence of teachers expectation being less for those in the bottom streams which undermines the quality of teaching-
- ‘A’ streamers were trusted to work with the minimum of supervision and to make a contribution to class discussion.
- ‘C’ streamers were in need of supervision and constant social control meaning they are very rarely left on their own. Studies make a link between streaming and development of anti school subcultures. Students were found students lived down to the labels and did not receive best teaching due to teachers attitudes and efforts.

Question 3

Hargreaves (1967)

Answer 3

Carried out an influential study in 1967 comparing two streams of boys in secondary school, the selection of these streams was closely related to behaviour, top streams were rewarded well for conforming behaviour and academic achievement. The lower stream of boys felt as though they were unable to achieve highly in teachers eyes, so instead resorted to peer status by forming anti school culture.
Hargreaves identified the following processes of labelling occurring between teachers about their students.

-Speculation
-Working hypothesis
-Elaboration
-Stabilisation

Question 4

Abrahams

Answer 4

Discussed the interconnection of several factors such as setting, labelling and subcultures as an explanation as to why students may be underachieving. He states that dominant class and gender ideologies of society are promoted in education by teacher subconsciously through labelling. He also states that streaming should be stopped all together in schools.

Question 5

Mac an Ghail

Answer 5

Conducted a study named the “Making of Men” which examined a predominately working class inner city industrial area in the midlands. He found one subcultural group was named “Macho Lads” for these boys their ability to perform heavy, physical, manual labour work became a way for them to shape their working class identity. De-industrialisation however led to them facing a crisis of masculinity. There was now a shift to part-time roles that were office based and traditionally ‘suited the lifestyles of women’. For those that could no longer gain these traditional working class jobs, they only had the options of:

-Becoming upwardly mobile to gain the new working class, white collar jobs
-To face the prospect of low-paid work
-To face long-term unemployment

Question 6

Willis

Answer 6

12 working class boys in a midlands secondary school in his study ‘Learning to Labour’. He argued that these lads’ (as they identified themselves) formed a distinctive “counter-school
sub-cultural grouping” characterised by opposition to the values and norms perpetuated throughout the school. This group of disaffected boys felt superior to the more conformist pupils who they disparagingly labelled as ‘ear oles’. They showed little interest in academic work, preferring instead to amuse themselves as best they could through various forms of deviant behaviour in which ‘having a laff’ became the main objective of the school day. The lads also tried to identify with the adult, non-school world, by smoking, drinking and expressing strongly sexist and racist attitudes.
The lads’ behaviour in schools relates to the behaviour they adopted in their work life later, Willis continued his study into the Lad’s workplace - the ‘shop floor’ of local factories. He found that the counter school culture helped prepare them for the boredom and monotony of the work they were to do later on, they adopted similar distraction techniques in the workplace such as joking around, only taking enough care to avoid being sacked in the workplace.

Question 7

Althusser

Answer 7

The education system is part of the superstructure (the institutions of society) it is directly impacted by the infrastructure (the economic base of society owned by the ruling class), meaning that he suggests it is designed in a way that will ultimately benefit the Bourgeoisie. Althusser suggests that education performs two roles:
• To pass on necessary skills to create a workforce
• To pass on ruling class ideologies to ensure the working class conform
Althusser suggests that the ruling class use ideological control’ within education as a way of making sure that students conform to rules etc as a way of training them for the workplace. He states that education is part of what he calls the ‘ideological state apparatus
-This refers to how the institutions are used by the ruling class to help pass on their ideologies. He states that if physical force were used to ensure a productive workforce, the masses could resist and not conform to this.

Question 8

Bowles & Gintis

Answer 8

Suggest that education serves to reproduce the capitalist relations of production (the hierarchy of workers from the boss down) with the appropriate skills and attitudes. They also state that education ensures that workers will unquestioningly adapt to the needs of the system - They call this the ‘correspondence principle. The correspondence principle suggests that what goes on in school corresponds directly to the world of work, for example teachers are like bosses and pupils are like workers who work for rewards.

Question 9

Durkheim

Answer 9

claimed that education should emphasise the moral responsibilities that members of society have towards each other. It should pass on social solidarity and a value consensus i.e. shared norms and values. Durkheim also says that educations ensures people have the skills for a specialised division of labour E.g. through subject specific skills that lead onto certain vocations such as links between the sciences and health occupations. He claimed that standardised testing helps to assess skills.

Question 10

Davis & Moore

Answer 10

Similarly to Durkheim, Davis and Moore claimed that education performs role allocation and helps to sift, sort and grade students (education helps with this For example A grades versus D grades AND Vocational versus Academic subjects) people in terms of ability which is rewarded in exam success. Those with the most ability are then rewarded in a meritocratic society in terms of economic rewards to ensure the best people fill the most functionally important roles.

Question 11

Eysenck

Answer 11

States that IQ is largely inherited - He claims that between 60-80% of intelligence is genetically based. Eysenck also claims that What children take out of school is proportional to what they bring into the schools in terms of IQ’ and also states that class differences in intelligence largely account for class differences in educational attainment.

Question 12

Smith and Noble

Answer 12

Discusses that some students face
‘Financial Barriers to Learning’ - due to their parents’ low income - Smith and Noble state that due to these barriers, parents are unable to afford the following:
• Unable to afford school uniforms, transport, textbooks and class materials which can lead to isolation and bullying.
Less likely to have a computer/desk/Homework area.
Marketisation of schools means the better resourced schools in affluent areas.
• Pupils more likely to work part time or care for younger siblings if parents do shift work.

Question 13

Raey et al

Answer 13

Discusses the idea that economic capital is needed to gain cultural capital, meaning that some students miss out on this which has a negative impact on their educational attainment. Raey et al also claim that private education is another way of paying into cultural capital, meaning that those who do not have access to this face educational disadvantages. They also claim that working class students are more likely to have part time jobs and therefore more likely to work longer hours reducing their chances of attaining higher grades in education. Finally, they acknowledge that over 25% of private school students have extra tuition compared to only 10% of state school students, therefore highlighting the importance of social class on a child’s achievement.

Question 14

Palmer

Answer 14

50% of BAME are from low income families which will impact life chances , ie , lack of economic capital to achieve in education fully. (Tutors recourses etc.)

Question 15

Calendar and Jackson

Answer 15

Carried out surveys on 2,000 prospective HE students, and examined their attitudes towards debt, class positions and decisions for HE destinations (University).
They discuss the ‘Fear of Debt’ and found that those afraid of debt (generally the working classes) were four times less likely to apply for university. They state that this fear was greatest among the poor and explain that the thought of debt stopped them applying completely.

Question 16

Douglas (1964)

Answer 16

Carried out a longitudinal survey in his study ‘the home and school’ and found that a variety of factors affected attainment such as the students health, size of family, the school etc. He argued that the most significant factor was the degree of parent’s interest in their education. Douglas claimed that middle class parents were more likely to encourage attainment and progression - He judged this based on the indicator of more frequent visits to the school to discuss their child’s progress.

Question 17

Feinstein (2003)

Answer 17

Argued that parental interest was a significant factor in educational attainment and that class differences existed in terms of support. Feinstein measured parental interest by asking for the teacher’s assessment / judgement of how much interest parents’ showed in their child’s education.

Question 18

Bernstein

Answer 18

Notes the importance of language upon educational attainment in relation to social class. He defines the ‘restricted code’ and the ‘elaborated code’, he argues that the middle class are able to use both of these ‘codes’ (speech patterns), whereas the working class only have access to the restricted code. Bernstein defines these speech ‘codes’ as:

-Restricted Code - This is generally used in relatively informal situations and lacks in-depth descriptions etc. Linguistically, this code is highly predictable and the dialogue is usually unplanned.

-Elaborated Code - This is generally used in relatively formal, educated situations, allowing people to be creative in their expressions and descriptions.

Question 19

Sugarman (1970)

Answer 19

-Argued that the working class formed a different subculture and were characterised by the following characteristics:

• Fatalism - See their futures of manual labour work and lack of academic success as ‘mapped-out.’ They accepted their situation and did not attempt to change it.

• Immediate Gratification - Leave education with the aim of going into work for financial reasons - Would rather have money now than work hard towards degrees etc like middle class children may do

• Present Time Orientation - Too focused and distracted by getting involved in what is happening at the time rather than focusing attentions towards work and progressing / developing in order to improve their future prospects

•Collectivism - Peer group culture leads students to get involved in anti-school subcultures rather than focusing on themselves and their futures. They were loyal to the peer group rather than being concerned with competing against each other for academic achievement.

Question 20

Bordieu

Answer 20

Argues that the education system is systematically biased in favour of the culture of the dominant social classes (the middle and upper classes), devaluing the norms, values and knowledge of the working classes. This idea is linked to the concept of cultural deprivation theory but deprivation suggests that there is something lacking or inferior about the culture of the working classes whereas cultural capital does not.

Question 21

Gerwitz

Answer 21

Argues that competition between schools benefits the middle class, who can get their children into more desirable schools. Gerwitz found that differences in economic and cultural capital lead to class differences in how far parents can exercise choice of secondary school. Professional middle class parents tend to be privileged skilled choosers who understand how the schools admissions procedures work and can use this knowledge to access the best schools. Gerwitz also states that middle class parents have more economic capital meaning they can move house into areas with better schools.

Question 22

Gillborn

Answer 22

Claims that the UK education system is ‘institutionally racist. He states that teachers’ racist assumptions led them to believe that black male students would cause trouble and that teachers would see the behaviour of these students as challenging.
Teachers would confront this behaviour and this would build resentment and escalate problems. When they carried out their study disproportionate amounts of black students are not entered into higher tiers - Leading to their lower achievement (highest grade they could achieve was a D). Institutional racism. Gillborn - Gillborn argues that institutional racism and in-school factors are to blame for the underachievement of Black Caribbean boys.

Question 23

Jasper

Answer 23

Agrees with Gillborn in that he claims schools are ‘institutionally racist. He draws on his own experiences of school and claims that a self-fulfilling prophecy occurs where black male students live down to negative labels that are given by teachers. Jasper claims that the curriculum needs to be adapted to make it more relevant - For example school should reward the ‘arts’ as well as academia.

Question 24

Crozier

Answer 24

Found Pakistani pupils ‘keep to themselves’ because in their own words they are often made to feel excluded and ‘different at school. Pakistani and Bangladeshi pupils had experienced the following; anxieties about their safety; racist abuse was a lived experience of their schooling; careers advisors at school believed South Asian girls were bound by tradition and it was a waste of time advising them; not feeling assemblies were relevant. Therefore this can lead them to underachieve in education as a result.

Question 25

Mirza

Answer 25

Used a mixed-methods ethnography to study 198 students between the age of 15 and 19. Took and interactionist stance and found that, in general, black African and Caribbean girls are ambitious, determined to succeed and have high status aspirations. However, she created a teacher typology which separated teachers into different categories based on their expectations of teachers and this was reflected in their achievements:

→ Overt Racists - (about 33% of those observed) displayed their racial prejudice to students and other staff.
→ Christians - adopted a ‘colour blind approach and treated pupils equally but often refused to acknowledge racial prejudice amongst others.
→ The Crusaders - actively challenged racism in the education system (this was most likely to occur in staff meetings).
→ Black teachers - content teaching students regardless of ethnicity and suggested many subject areas were of limited use to black pupils and more practical support was required
→ Liberal Chauvinists - adopted liberal attitudes to ethnicity and promoted equality however, were often ill-informed and made assumptions about cultural deficits in students based on second hand knowledge.

Question 26

Mac an Ghaill

Answer 26

Carried out two ethnographic studies in inner-city educational institutions where he worked. The first study looked at the relations between white teachers and two groups of male students with anti-school values - the “Asian Warriors” and the “African Caribbean Rasta Heads”. Mac an Ghail identified that for the “Rasta Heads” racism (and not the attitudes of the boys themselves) was the cause of their underachievement.
Mac an Ghail gained an in-depth insight into the way in which black youths systematically experience education in a different way to white pupils due to institutional racism and the ethnocentric curriculum.

Question 27

Abbott

Answer 27

Statistics mask the fact the black boys face high exclusion rates in schools. Children are educated in schools not at home, meaning that culture and external factors cannot be blamed for the underachievement of black males. Abbott also claims that the curriculum does not do enough to be inclusive e.g. black history month is not enough, the curriculum should be adapted to cover all aspects of history etc.

Question 28

Coard

Answer 28

Developed the idea that the school curriculum is ethnocentric meaning the curriculum is based around one particular cultural view point (White British) while ignoring others. White history and literature come to dominate the curriculum and teachers were fouers to be dismosive of ensuandard English as a way of speaking. These hidden es is sometimes overt messages are transferred to students. The culture of ethnic minorities is devalued and students become de-motivated - They cannot fully identify with course content.

Question 29

Fuller

Answer 29

Study on working class black girls found to be victims of negative stereotypes refused to live up to the stereotypes and worked hard to be successful at school. The same may not often be said for boys whose masculinity may impact upon how labels are interpreted and internalised thus an important evaluation point should be the interplay of factors such as class/gender and ethnicity when looking at the impact of interactionist findings on labelling/setting and streaming and pupil subcultures.
Mirza - Found that working class, black females resisted labels from teachers and worked to ensure they were academically successful - This was to ensure social mobility.

Question 30

Swann Report (1985)

Answer 30

Social class differences account for a high proportion of differenced in achievement between ethnic groups. According to Flaherty:
→ Pakistanis & Bangladeshis are 3X more likely than
Whites to be in the poorest 1/5 of the population.
→ Africans, Pakistanis & Bangladeshis are 3X more likely to be unemployed than Whites.
→ 15% of minority groups live in overcrowded homes (2% for Whites).
→ Pakistanis are 2X as likely to be in semi/ un-skilled jobs compared to Whites.

Question 31

Sewell

Answer 31

Blames the culture of the Black Caribbean boys for their own failure. Black Caribbean boys lack positive role models due to being from matriarchal backgrounds - As a result of their upbringing and matriarchal backgrounds they are generally financially deprived. He suggests that boys turn to role models in rap / youth culture - The messages passed on in this culture is the idea that they can ‘get rich quick through illegitimate means rather than through hard work. These boys are then vulnerable to peer pressure and become drawn into hyper-masculine, anti-school subcultures. He calls black boys the
‘kings in the playground but the paupers in the classroom’ meaning black boys ‘act out’ hyper-masculine behaviours that are not conducive to learning.

Question 32

Driver and Ballard

Answer 32

Argue that British-Indian families place a great value on their children’s education. They push their children to have high ambitions and to gain the best possible grades. This is reflected in the achievements of Indian pupils who do better than black and white groups on average at GCSE and this may lead them into certain types of career

Question 33

Archer and Francis

Answer 33

Cultural factors are important in explaining the success of British-Chinese students. identified that educational success is part of their identity.
When boys engage in laddish behaviour they still maintain a commitment to school. Parents also took a stronger role in developing their academic success. They continually talked to their children about their future education and invested time and money in supporting their children even when they had little money to spare.
Parents were happy to push their
children and were critical of white British parents who were seen as allowing failure to develop. Thus British Chinese students in poverty do better than other groups in poverty.

Question 34

Bolognani

Answer 34

Discusses the “myth of return” and states that some ethnic groups are attached to their country of origin and may one day return there. This perception has increased with the rise in Islamophobia within schools - Both amongst staff and students. They found that students with family in Pakistan are likely to take longer holidays and religious commitments result in extra time out of school which leads to gaps in learning. This leads to two issues…students missing course content but also teachers potentially presuming that they are not fully focused on their educational attainment.

Question 35

Modood

Answer 35

Argued that many ethnic minority parents face language barriers showing that this can have a negative impact on their children’s educational attainment… E.g. Can’t support their children with homework.
Modood also found that… 3/5 of
Bangladeshi women did not speak English, half Pakistani women did not speak English and 1/5 of Pakistani and Bangladeshi men did not speak English.
As a result this impacts educational attainment.

Question 36

Sewell

Answer 36

As previously stated, Sewell blames the culture (and therefore norms and values) of the Black Caribbean boys for their own failure. Black Caribbean boys lack positive role models due to being from matriarchal backgrounds - As a result of their upbringing and matriarchal backgrounds they are generally financially deprived.
He suggests that boys turn to role models in rap / youth culture.
The messages passed on in this culture is the idea that they can ‘get rich quick’ through illegitimate means rather than through hard work. These boys are then vulnerable to peer pressure and become drawn into hyper-masculine, anti-school subcultures. He calls black boys the ‘kings in the playground but the paupers in the classroom’ meaning black boys
‘act out hyper-masculine behaviours that are not conducive to learning.

Question 37

Hendessi

Answer 37

States that poverty is the key factor to educational underachievement for Bangladeshi and Pakistani students. Family and cultural norms and values are also important, especially for girls.