Experimental Evidence

Question 1

Mattock and Brown (1990)

Answer 1

Demonstrated that an infant does not have to have knowledge of the world to have perceptual constancy (distance doesn’t decrease size of object)

Question 2

Kellman and Spelke (1983)

Answer 2

Children use real world cues to obtain knowledge of objects (rod moving behind square)

Question 3

Bower et al (1970)

Answer 3

Optical expansion (depth cue where a nearer object occludes more of the background)

Question 4

Kavanaugh and Harris (1994)

Answer 4

2 year old’s drawings depict real world objects

Question 5

Braine et al (1993)

Answer 5

6/7 years old is when children have greater realism and an understanding of the 3-D

Question 6

Freeman and Janikoun (1972)

Answer 6

Children younger than 7’s knowledge of object interferes with their drawings (e.g. they would draw a mug with the handle even when they could not see the handle, whereas children over 7 draw only what they can see)

Question 7

Bremner and Moore (1984)

Answer 7

Supporting evidence for the Freeman and Janikoun (1972) experiment, where they allowed half the 5-7 year olds to see the whole object, thus giving them more knowledge. That half overall performed worse

Question 8

Davis (1983)

Answer 8

Same experiment as Freeman & Janikoun (1972) but added another cup with the handle showing. This led to more 4-7 year olds omitting the handle. This suggests the relationship between the cups is more important than knowledge about the cups

Question 9

Barret et al (1985)

Answer 9

Criticised the Freeman & Janikoun (1972) experiment by saying the results were only because of the language used. In Barrets experiment he showed that using standard instructions 11% of pre-7 year olds drew the mug correctly, but using explicit instructions 65% drew it correctly.

Question 10

Palinscar and Brown (1984)

Answer 10

An example of ZPD called reciprocal teaching. E.g. Reading is only possible for young children with significant help from adults, from this highly scaffolded stage the child becomes more and more independent until it becomes an automatic process

Question 11

Rouge Test (Gallup 1970)

Answer 11

Chimps unable to recognise themselves in the mirror, however they are able to in a social context (hierarchy).

Question 12

Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1978)

Answer 12

Infants are able to recognise themselves in the mirror at about 20 months old

Question 13

Bandura (1969;1977)

Answer 13

Modelling and Reinforcement. Modelling being the shaping of gender roles by adults and role models. Reinforcement being the rewarding and encouraging of gender roles and norms e.g. boys play sports, girls do ballet

Question 14

Fagot and Leinbach (1989)

Answer 14

Showed that the more gender normative behaviour was encouraged the more gender stereotyped behaviour was observed

Question 15

Kohlberg (1966)

Answer 15

Children usually focus attention on same sex parent. This is the reversed direction of influence to social learning theory

Question 16

Bandura (1997)

Answer 16

The optimal level of self-efficacy (perception of your own competence) is a slight over estimation

Question 17

Collins (1982)

Answer 17

Own self-efficacy influences your view on failure. High self-efficacy = must try harder, low self-efficacy = not my fault/test was too hard

Question 18

Harter’s Theory of Self Esteem (1993…probably)

Answer 18

The larger the gap between who you are and who you want to be will mean a lower self esteem

Question 19

Walker (2001)

Answer 19

Infants will often mimic others emotions e.g. when mothers are sad infants become distressed

Question 20

Riby and Hancock (2009)

Answer 20

Showed that people with ASD (Autism spectrum disorders) looked at faces less and with shorter fixations, whereas people with Williams syndrome had prolonged facial fixations

Question 21

Pierce et al (2001)

Answer 21

People with ASD (Autism spectrum disorders) show significantly less activation in the FFA (fusiform face area)

Question 22

Wimmer and Perner (1983)

Answer 22

Demonstrated using ‘maxie and the chocolate bar’ that children under 4 cannot put themselves into another persons frame of mind. (They couldn’t understand that maxie didn’t know the chocolate had been moved)

Question 23

Flavell et al (1993)

Answer 23

Showed children under 4 are unable to comprehend 2 representations of reality (that something looked like a rock and was actually a sponge)

Question 24

Siegel and Beattie (1991)

Answer 24

Changed the wording of the question asked in the Wimmer & Perner (maxie + chocolate bar) experiment and found more children passed

Question 25

Clements and Perner (1994)

Answer 25

Showed that in false belief tasks, 90 %children aged 2yrs 11months were focusing on the correct answer but only 45% gave the correct answer

Question 26

Sorbian (1991)

Answer 26

Showed that children under the age of 3yrs 5 months are unable to deceive others using false pointing

Question 27

Happé (1995)

Answer 27

Related theory of mind to verbal ability. Found that children who had a verbal age of 4 performed better at false belief tasks

Question 28

Birch and Bloom (2007)

Answer 28

Suggests that in order to understand others we must first have a solid self-representation, because our understanding of others is anchored within our understanding of ourselves (autistic children perform much worse at false belief tasks)

Question 29

Hereby et al (2003)

Answer 29

Suggests that people with ASD (autism spectrum disorders) perform worse at theory of mind tasks due to poor emotional understanding

Question 30

Herrnstein and Murray (1994)

Answer 30

People with higher IQ’s tend to rise to the higher strata of society

Question 31

Gardner (1983)

Answer 31

Theory of multiple intelligences. Stated that there are 7 different types of intelligence, attempted to prove this by showing different areas of brain damage affected different intelligences

Question 32

Turnbull (1997)

Answer 32

Supports theory of multiple intelligences. Uses double dissociation by showing one patient was unable to identify and object and another was unable to identify orientation

Question 33

Roth (1964)

Answer 33

Found that the more intelligent someone was the quicker their reaction time was. This supports Information-processing theory

Question 34

Karl (1991)

Answer 34

Found that response time decreases from age 4-14 (useful for information processing theory)

Question 35

Salthouse (1991)

Answer 35

Found that response time increases as adults move into older age (useful information processing theory)

Question 36

Carracher and Schliemann (1985)

Answer 36

Used different phrasing of a maths question to see if it impacted an peoples ability to work the question out. 98.2% of people passed the informal. 36.8% passed the formal maths problems

Question 37

Belsky (1988)

Answer 37

combined the results of several studies and conluded that there are negative consequences if children less than 1 spent 20+ hours a week in non-maternal care

Question 38

Rutter (1998/2007)

Answer 38

Romanian orphan studies - found that children who were extremely privated in Romanian institutions from birth and then adopted by UK families could overcome the negative affects, later she revised this after further testing and found 9.2% of the romanians to have autistic symptoms compared the british control group of oorphans who had 0% incidence.

Question 39

Harlow (1959)

Answer 39

research on baby rhesus monkeys, Maternal deprivation leads to irreversible negative consequences later in life in primates.