EXC 3460 Organizational Behaviour And Leadership - Organizational Behaviour 10th Edition

Question 1

What is the Second machine age?

Answer 1

• its a twenty-first century phenomenon based on computing developments which will affect tasks previously considered to be impossible to automate
• these developments will reshape our economy, society, culture, organizations and nature of work

Question 2

The Second machine age is based on computerization. What are the three properties of computerization?

Answer 2

1. Exponential growth in computing power: computers are performing more functions, faster, on smaller and cheaper devices.
2. Big data and powerful analytics: everything that we do online leaves a digital trace, which is recorded, thus producing vast amounts of information about your behaviour.
3. Innovations that can be combined and recombined with other innovations: if you design a new app, you do not have to first invent the internet and the smartphone – they are already there.

Question 3

There are two opposing arguments for how technology is going to change our nature of work in the Second machine age. What are the two opposing arguments?

Answer 3

Technological determinism, the argument that technology determines the nature of jobs, skill and knowledge requirements, and organization structure.

Organizational choice, the argument that work design and organization structure depend on decisions about how and why technology is used, and not by the technology itself. Choice involves the design of equipment and systems, such as how much control is built into a machine, and what human intervention and discretion are allowed or required. There are choices concerning the goals that a technology is being used to pursue: reduce costs, improve quality, generate management information, or enhance employee surveillance and control. There are choices in how work is organized and how jobs are designed.

Question 4

The Technological determinism and Organizational choice arguments are too simplistic and absolutist: A job that can be automated doesn’t mean it will be, and a company ignoring technology to satisfy social needs will not sustain against competition. What is the name of the approach that balances both technology and social needs?

Answer 4

It is called the Socio-technical system design. It is an approach to job and organization design which tries to find the best fit between the social and technological dimensions.

The approach takes into account that an organizational system that is designed to satisfy social needs, ignoring the technical system, will run into problems and a system designed to meet only the demands of the technology will create social and organizational problems. The aim, therefore, has to be ‘joint optimization’ of the social and technical dimensions.

Question 5

What are Cobots?

Answer 5

Cobots are a new invention of robots created to work and assist human workers in jobs involving eyesight and dexterity, handle physically difficult/unpleasant tasks, labour shortages and rising wages.

Question 6

What are the 5 type of robots?

Answer 6

• Articulated robots, stationary robots that have atleast three rotationary joints, and which are typically found in an industrial setting (for ex. car manufacturing, advanced surgery)
• Assistance robots, robots that may be worn or handled to give people greater strength or mobility (for ex. prosthetics, stroke therapy)
• Humanoid robots, robots that have physical resemblance to humans and seek to mimick our abilities (for ex. lifting patients in care, customer service roles)
• Mobile robots, wheeled or tracked robots that can shuttle goods and people from one destination to the next (for ex. parcel delivery, security services)
• Serpentine robots, snake-like robots made up of multiple segments and joints that can move with hyper dexterity (for ex. industrial inspection, search and rescue)

Question 7

What is Artificial Intelligence and the 3 types of it?

Answer 7

Artificial Intelligence refers to computer software that performs tasks that would otherwise require human intelligence. The computer software, in a way, mimicks human intelligence.

Narrow AI: Systems that can perform discrete tasks with strict boundaries, such as:
- Image recognition: used in self-service desks at passport control, and automatic name tagging on Facebook photos
- Natural language processing: used in voice recognition for AI assistants like Amazon Echo and Google Home
- Information retrieval: used in search engines
- Reasoning using logic or evidence: used in mortgage underwriting and determining the likelihood of fraud

General AI: Systems which can understand their environment, and reason and act accordingly, carrying out tasks such as greeting customers, and creating works of art; these kinds of systems are still in development

Super AI: Systems that are smarter than the best human brains, and which can make deductions about unknown environments; whether and how these systems will be developed is the subject of intense debate.

Question 8

What are Intelligence Augmentation (IA) systems and how does it differ from AI systems

Answer 8

The task of AI is normally associated with automating jobs and replacing workers while intelligence augmentation systems are meant to help experts work faster and more effectively. Intelligence Augmentation allows workers to have more time to deal with interesting, complex and challenging tasks, making them more productive. For example, automated decision support for air traffic controllers increases their accuracy and performance.

An example of IA is Augmented Reality (AR), technology that superimposes three-dimensional moving images onto the real world around you, and allows you to interact with them. With Ikea Place, you can see how a piece of furniture will look in your home, as you walk around it, and change its position in a room.

Question 9

What is Virtual Reality (VR) technology?

Answer 9

Virtual Reality is technology that replaces the physical reality with a computer generated environment.

Uses include many: for example, Ford Motor Company uses VR to create a virtual workshop where engineers from different locations can collaborate in real time on life-size holograms of vehicle prototypes, walking around and inside to explore design options.

Question 10

What are the enabling abilities of Augmented Reality?

Answer 10

Most of the information that we use, including this page, is two-dimensional. However, we live in a three-dimensional world. AR creates a new kind of interface between people and machines, bridging the gap between 2-D and 3-D information. AR thus promises not only to augment reality, but also to complement and enhance human capabilities.

Michael Porter and James Heppelmann (2017, p.48) note that ‘AR allows people to process the physical and digital simultaneously, eliminating the need to mentally bridge the two. That improves our ability to rapidly and accurately absorb information, make decisions, and execute required tasks quickly and efficiently’.

Question 11

The 3 main capabilities of Augmented Reality technology?

Answer 11

1. Visualization: AR applications allow users to see inside objects in ways not previously possible. The medical device manufacturer AccuVein uses AR technology to convert the heat signature of a patient’s veins into an image that is superimposed on the patient’s skin. This makes the veins easier to find, and reduces the mistakes that are often made when taking blood.
2. Instructions and guidance: AR provides real-time, step-by-step visual guidance on how to perform tasks, such as product assembly or machine operation. Traditional 2-D drawings and manuals are replaced by interactive holograms. Boeing uses AR to train employees in the 50 steps involved in assembling an aircraft wing section which has 30 components. This reduces the training time by more than a third, and the number of inexperienced trainees who can perform the operation correctly the first time has increased by 90 per cent.
3. Interaction: AR can superimpose a virtual control panel directly onto an SCP, such as a machine, which can then be operated using an AR headset or smart glasses, voice commands, hand gestures, or direction of gaze. This removes the need for knobs and levers and touchscreens. For example, a factory worker wearing smart glasses can walk along a line of machines, see how they are performing, and make any necessary adjustments without having to touch them.

Question 12

Will my job be automated?: replacement effect and compensatory mechanisms

Answer 12

New technologies will create unemployment through replacement effects, — processes through which intelligent machines substitute for people at work, leading to unemployment — substituting equipment for people, such as self-service checkouts in supermarkets.

However, many compensatory mechanisms come into play — processes that delay
or reduce employment replacement effects, and which lead to the creation of new products, services and jobs. For example new products and services need new infrastructure (factories, offices, distribution chains), which create jobs in those areas. The reduced costs from technological innovation lead to lower prices which increase demand for other goods and services – creating more jobs. New technologies are not always implemented rapidly; it takes time to solve technical and organizational problems, and scrapping existing facilities can be costly. The benefits of new technologies may not at first be clear, and organizations often experiment with and introduce new systems gradually, to hedge the risks. Investment in new technologies is based on the expectation that the organization’s market will expand, in which case the existing workforce may be retained, if not increased. Finally, new technologies do not always live up to their promise, and may not be able to do everything that the ‘old’ technology could do. This explains why many homes still have traditional landlines, and there is still a demand for vinyl records, compact discs, printed books, and radios.

Question 13

Frey and Osborne (2017): An assesment of the automation potential of occupations

Answer 13

Carl Frey and Michael Osborne (2017) analysed over 700 occupations, assessing their automation potential – given the rapid advances in computing technology which mean that more tasks can now be automated. Their analysis was based on the distinctions between routine and non-routine tasks, and between manual and cognitive tasks.

Their analysis also took into account three ‘engineering bottlenecks’. These concern the problems that machines have with complex perception and manipulation tasks (i.e. surgeon), creative intelligence tasks (i.e. biologist, fashion designer), and social intelligence tasks (i.e. event planner, PR). Occupations that rely on those kinds of tasks are less susceptible to automation. The main barrier for automation will be the bottlenecks.

Question 14

Peter Flemings (2018) on the barriers to automation

Answer 14

Fleming argues that the question of whether robots will steal your job depends not just on the technology, but on organizational factors which affect which tasks are automated. These factors include:

• The nature of the task: Most customers want to talk to a human being when they contact a call centre for help and how many of us are prepared to fly in a fully automated aircraft that has no pilots?
• The cost of labour: It is cheaper to pay people to clean your home than it is to buy a robot.
• ** Power relations**: Trade unions and prominent professional groups can resist the implementation of new technologies.

Developing Fleming’s (2018) argument, at least five factors affect the pace and extent of the adoption of automation. First, technical feasibility. Second, the cost of developing and applying solutions. Third, the supply, demand, and costs of the labour that could be replaced. Fourth, **the economic benefits. **Finally, legal, regulatory and social acceptance may require human presence in some work.

Question 15

The Potential Impact of Automation on the Workforce

Answer 15

Fleming (2018) also predicts that, although work will not disappear, more poorly paid jobs will become available. The main concerns thus lie with low-skill, low-pay jobs. According to pessimistic predictions concerning the impact of technology on low skill jobs, this could lead to the creation of a two-tier workforce: Tier 1 (highly paid and educated, skilled worker immune to automation) and Tier 2 (less educated and unskilled manual workers that are poorly paid and prone to automation unless employing them is cheaper than robots).

Those who are unskilled and poorly paid are already at a disadvantage. Cribb et al. (2018) argue that the minimum wage (‘national living wage’) in the UK affects many employees in routine occupations, such as retail cashiers and receptionists, whose work tends to be easier to automate. As the minimum wage rises, employers will have more incentive to automate those jobs. The social implications of a two-tier workforce could be worse if the two tiers were located in different parts of the country. The UK think tank Centre for Cities (2018) argues that, although automation will create jobs, it will also create deep economic and political divisions. The resulting inequality in income and living standards could lead to social unrest.

Question 16

The Potential ”Bad News” of AI and Robotics

Answer 16

• AI and robotics will transform many jobs and destroy others in the short term.
• Employees in jobs that require low to medium skill and qualifications will be most affected.
• Those who are displaced may lack sufficient training and may not readily find other work.
• Income inequality between those in ‘lovely’ and ‘lousy’ jobs could lead to social conflict.

Question 17

The Potential ”Good News” of AI and Robotics

Answer 17

• New technologies will create new organizational opportunities and new jobs.
• Sudden mass redundancies are unlikely.
• Time saved with the use of intelligent IT systems will reduce production costs.
• New technologies will take over dangerous, monotonous tasks.
• AI and robotics free up time for employees to do more interesting and valuable work.
• Older employees and those with disabilities can be integrated.
• New job models will encourage the creation of personalized working conditions.
• Employees will supervise rather than participate in production.
• AI and robotics will contribute to a growth in prosperity.

Question 18

What does Social Matrix mean and how does it work?

Answer 18

Think of a social matrix as a vast, invisible network of interconnected relationships, norms, and structures within a society. It’s like a complex web that encompasses everything from family dynamics to cultural traditions, economic systems, and political institutions.

At its core, the social matrix shapes how individuals interact with each other and navigate their world. It dictates what is considered acceptable behavior, defines roles and statuses, and influences how power is distributed. For example, it determines whether someone is seen as a parent, a teacher, a boss, or a friend, and what expectations come with those roles.

The social matrix operates through various mechanisms. Socialization, for instance, is how individuals learn the norms and values of their society through interactions with family, peers, media, and other social institutions. Social hierarchies emerge based on factors like wealth, education, gender, and race, influencing access to resources and opportunities.

Cultural practices and traditions reinforce the social matrix, providing a shared understanding of how things should be done. Laws and regulations set by governments also play a role, shaping behavior and maintaining order within the social system.

Moreover, the social matrix is dynamic and ever-changing. It evolves as societies evolve, responding to shifts in demographics, technology, and global events. Changes in the social matrix can lead to social movements, revolutions, or cultural shifts as people challenge existing norms and structures.

Understanding the social matrix helps us make sense of social phenomena, such as inequality, discrimination, and social change. By analyzing its various components and how they interact, sociologists can uncover patterns, identify power dynamics, and propose solutions to address social issues.

Question 19

The Enabling Ability of Social Media and its Benefits for Organizations

Answer 19

Social networking sites can reveal (to potential employers) information about candidates’ abilities and characteristics, and display (to potential employees) an organization’s culture, goals, and priorities, such as attitude to corporate social responsibility.

A study by the McKinsey Global Institute concluded that social media could increase the productivity of knowledge workers by 20 to 25 per cent, by reducing the time spent looking for information. McKinsey also predicts that social media could save companies $1.3 trillion, through improvements in intra-office collaboration.

Leonardi and Tsedal Neeley (2017) cite a study of 4,200 American organizations which found that over 70 per cent used social media tools. The reported benefits included promoting collaboration and knowledge sharing, speeding up decisions, developing innovative ideas for products and services, increasing employee engagement, establishing relationships between employees in different locations, and avoiding the duplication of work.

Question 20

The Application of Corporate Social Networks in a Corporate Enterprise context

Answer 20

With Enterprise networking platforms, employees can be involved in two-way discussions using secure ‘gated’ corporate networking platform, for incubating ideas and feeding these to senior management. They can also be used to facilitate communication and collaboration.

Social networking can be a more engaging medium than traditional organization communication tools, to send corporate messages, quickly capture employee reactions, to check that messages have been understood, and for information-sharing in general. A corporate social network can strengthen the sense of shared purpose, by celebrating achievements, reinforcing mission and values, and fostering identification with the organization.

Question 21

Employee voice and Social Media

Answer 21

Employee voice refers to the perceived ability of employees to express their views, opinions, concerns and suggestions, and for these to influence decisions at work.

Joe Dromey (2016) reports research by the Advisory Conciliation and Arbitration Service (ACAS) which studied the extent to which employers in the UK are making use of social media to promote and access employee voice. The study found that half of employers were using social media tools, but mainly for marketing and customer engagement purposes. Only one in six had internal enterprise social networks, and these were used mainly to provide organizational updates rather than to collect employee views. Dromey suggests that high levels of personal use of social media could promote its organizational adoption. But where enterprise social networks were in use at work, few employees said that this was effective in sharing knowledge and ideas, or to encourage employee voice. Interestingly, employees in organizations with enterprise networks said that they felt less able to influence decisions than in organizations not using social networks. Dromey concludes that the benefits of these technologies are not being fully exploited.

Question 22

The Importance of Employee voice

Answer 22

The employee engagement movement, Engage for Success (2018), claims that employee voice is ‘the cheapest smoke alarm you can ever install in an organization’. Engage for Success also found that over 60 per cent of employees say that they have more to give to their organizations, but no one is asking them.

Research has demonstrated that people who feel that their opinions matter are more likely to be satisfied and productive (Bosak et al., 2017). Employees have to feel that it is safe to voice their opinions, even with gated enterprise social networks, so employee feedback has to be managed carefully.

Question 23

Organizational culture

Answer 23

Organizational culture refers to the shared values, beliefs and norms which influence the way employees think, feel and act towards others inside and outside the organization.

Organizational culture can be thought of as the personality of an organization. It is also often referred to as corporate culture. It deals with how things are done in a company on a daily basis. It affects how employees perform their work; how they relate to each other; to customers, and to their managers. Organizational culture affects not only task issues (how well or badly an organization performs), but also emotional issues (how workers feel about their work and their companies), as well as ethical issues (how companies behave in society).

Some writers argue that just as one can talk about French culture, Arab culture or Asian culture, so too it is possible to discuss the organizational culture of the British Civil Service, McDonald’s, Microsoft, or of Disney.

Question 24

What is the importance of organizational culture?

Answer 24

Ann Cunliffe (2008) states that organizational culture is important because it:
- shapes the image that the public has of an organization • influences organizational effectiveness
- provides direction for the company
- helps to attract, retain and motivate staff

Question 25

The 4 attributes of Organizational culture

Answer 25

• Shared: resides in the shared behaviours, values and assumptions of groups and is experienced through their norms and expectations which are their unwritten rules.
• Pervasive: permeates the organization and is manifested in surface manifestations such as collective behaviours, physical environments, group rituals, physical symbols, stories and legends.
• Enduring: directs the thoughts and actions of employees over time. Culture becomes self- reinforcing as individuals are attracted to characteristics similar to their own, and companies select applicants who will ‘fit in’. Culture becomes self-reinforcing and resistant to change.
• Implicit: despite its subliminal nature, individuals are hardwired to recognize and respond to culture instinctively as it acts like a silent language.

Question 26

The 3 Levels of Organizational culture: Surface manifestations

Answer 26

Edgar Schein’s (2004) model is widely accepted and considers organizational culture in terms of three levels, each distinguished by its visibility to, and accessibility by individuals.

Schein’s first level of organizational culture is surface manifestations (also called ‘observable culture’). It refers to the visible things that a culture produces. It includes both physical objects and also behaviour patterns that can be seen, heard or felt. These all ‘send a message’ to an organization’s employees, suppliers and customers. The surface level of culture is the most visible. Anyone coming into contact with it can observe it. These include:

• Heroes are characters, living or dead, who personify the cultural values and beliefs; who are referred to in company stories, legends, sagas, myths and jokes; and who represent role models that current employees should emulate.
• Norms are expected modes of behaviour that are accepted as ‘the company’s way of doing things’ thereby providing guidance for employee behaviour.
• Jokes are humorous stories intended to cause amusement, but their underlying themes carry a message for the behaviour or values expected of organizational members.

Question 27

The 3 Levels of Organizational culture: Organizational values

Answer 27

Schein’s second level of organizational culture is organizational values. These are the accumulated beliefs held about how work should be done and situations dealt with that guide employee behaviour. They can be consciously or unconsciously held; they are often unspoken, but guide employees’ behaviours. They can be encapsulated either in phrases or in single words. These values:
- represent something that is explicitly or implicitly desirable to an individual or group
- influence employees’ choices from available means and ends of action
- reflect their beliefs as to what is right and wrong, or specify their general preferences.

Question 28

The 3 Levels of Organizational culture: Basic assumptions

Answer 28

Schein’s third level of organization culture is basic assumptions. These are the invisible, preconscious, unspoken, ‘taken-for-granted’ understandings held by individuals within an organization concerning human behaviour, the nature of reality and to an organization’s relationship to its environment. Basic assumptions are located at the deepest level of culture, and are the most difficult to comprehend. They are the set of shared but unspoken suppositions about the best way to do things within a company. They relate to the nature of reality and the organization’s relationship with its environment.

Over time, a company’s values, beliefs and attitudes become so ingrained and well- established, that they cease to be articulated or debated by employees. Instead of being discussed, they become ‘baked’ into the fabric of an organization’s culture. These basic assumptions begin with the founder’s thinking, and then develop through a shared learning process.

Question 29

What is Organizational socialization?

Answer 29

Organizational socialization refers to the process through which an employee’s pattern of behaviour, values, attitudes and motives are influenced to conform to those of the organization’s. It includes the careful selection of new company members, their instruction in appropriate ways of thinking and behaving; and the reinforcement of desired behaviours by senior managers.

Socialization involves newcomers absorbing the values and behaviours required to survive and prosper in an organization. It reduces the variability of behaviour by instilling employees with an understanding of what is expected of them, and how they should do things. By providing both internal guidance and a shared frame of reference, socialization standardizes employee behaviour making it predictable for the benefit of senior management.

Question 30

The 7 key steps of Organizational socialization (Richard Pascale, 1985)

Answer 30

1. Select: carefully choose entry-level candidates whose traits predispose them towards accepting the firm’s culture.
2. Humiliate: provide humility-inducing experiences to foster self-questioning of prior behaviour, belief and values; lower their self-comfort and self-complacency; and thus increase their acceptance of the organization’s norms and values.
3. Train: provide front-line training that leads to mastery of one of the core disciplines of the business and tie to a proven track record.

Evaluate: measure results, reward desired behaviour, and punish undesired ones.
5. Adherence: ensure identification with the company’s transcendent values. This allows them to reconcile the personal sacrifices that membership of an organization entails.
6. Reinforce: use stories and legends to interpret watershed events in the company’s history to validate its culture and its aims. This provides the new employee with a code of conduct of ‘how we do things around here’.
7. Role model: have peers or superiors, who are recognized as winners and who share common qualities, to teach by example. The protégé watches the role model and copies the traits and behaviours that they display.

Question 31

The Process of Organizational socialization: Anticipatory stage

Answer 31

The anticipatory stage of socialization describes expectations that a newcomer has about the job or organization before starting work. These expectations come from learning about the firm from the media or, in the case of students, attending graduate recruitment fairs and reading the company’s recruitment literature. If the individual finds that the company’s values do not fit in with their own, they may withdraw from the application process. This stage is also referred to as pre-arrival.

Question 32

The Process of Organizational socialization: Accomodation stage

Answer 32

The accommodation stage of socialization involves the newcomer learning about their organization, making sense of what is going on around them, and adjusting to the new norms, values and behaviours. Once inside, the organization encourages new entrants to adopt the company’s beliefs and values. It can do this by having them attend induction courses; assigning them to an existing employee who ‘shows them the ropes’ (buddy system), or by rotating them through different departments to familiarize them with the organization’s work. This stage has also been labelled encounter (as when the new recruit actually encounters the organization proper), and also onboarding (as when the individual is brought onto the ‘deck’ of the company).

Question 33

The Process of Organizational socialization: Role management stage

Answer 33

The role management stage of socialization involves fine-tuning the lessons that newcomers have learned from the accommodation stage, and adding responsibilities expected of fully fledged organizational members . New company entrants also learn about their organizations through role modelling. They are shown employees who are judged by the company to be ‘winners’. These are employees who possess the required traits, demonstrate the required behaviours, achieve the required results, and who are thus recognized and valued by the firm. The learner observes these ‘winners’ and acquires a mental picture of the act and its consequences (rewards and punishments), and then copies them, acting out the acquired image. This stage is also labelled the metamorphosis stage as the individual transforms from being a member of the public to company employee.

Question 34

Contrasting Perspectives on Organizational culture (Managerial versus social science): Culture has versus culture is

Answer 34

The has-view holds that every organization possesses a culture which, along with its strategy, structure, technology and employees, is part of the organizational machine that can be controlled and managed. It sees organizational culture as constituting an objective reality of artefacts, values and meanings that can be quantified and measured. The culture is ‘given’ to new hires who have not participated in its formation. From this perspective, culture is acquired by employees. It is seen as capable of definition, intervention and control, representing a ‘tool for change’ that can be used by managers.

The alternative is the is-view. It sees organizational culture as something that the organization is. Culture emerges as a matter of course as executives work to update strategy and improve processes (Lorsch and McTague, 2016). From this standpoint, individuals do things, and work together in certain ways. Thus, they create a culture which evolves spontaneously and is therefore not capable of being managed. It holds that culture cannot be easily quantified or measured, and that researchers must study it the way that anthropologists study other societies. Culture is produced and reproduced continuously through the routine interactions between organizational members. Hence organizational culture exists only in, and through, the social (inter) actions of employees.

Question 35

Contrasting Perspectives on Organizational culture (Managerial versus social science): Integration versus Fragmentation/Differentiation

Answer 35

The managerial integration (or unitary) perspective on culture holds that an organization possesses a single, unified culture, consisting of shared values to which most employees subscribe. These integrating features lead to improved organizational effectiveness through greater employee commitment and employee control, as measured by productivity and profitability. It also includes the controversial notion of a ‘strong’ culture, which is defined by three characteristics: the existence of clear set of values, norms and beliefs; the sharing of these by the majority of members; and the guidance of employees’ behaviour by those same values, norms and beliefs.

In contrast, social science emphasizes two perspectives – differentiation and fragmentation. The differentiation perspective on culture regards a single organization as consisting of many groups, each with their own subcultures. Each subculture possesses its own characteristics which differ from those of its neighbours. It therefore sees organizational culture as differentiated or as a plurality rather than as a single unified whole. Within an organization, there are diverse interest groups which have their own objectives (e.g. management versus labour; staff versus line; marketing versus production). Thus, the differentiation perspective sees ‘cultural pluralism’ as a fundamental aspect of all organizations; seeks to understand the complexity and the interaction between frequently conflicting subcultures. The other social science perspective is the fragmentation (or conflict) perspective on culture. It assumes an absence of consensus; stresses the inevitability of conflict; focuses on the variety of interests and opinions between different groups; and directs attention to the power differences in organizations. The fragmentation perspective sees organizations as collections of opposed groupings which are rarely reconciled. It is critical of managers and management consultants who underplay the differences that exist between individuals, groups and departments within a company. It sees conflict rather than consensus as the norm within organizations

Question 36

Contrasting Perspectives on Organizational culture (Managerial versus social science):
Culture managed versus culture tolerated

Answer 36

Since the managerialist perspective sees culture as something that an organization has, it further assumes that it is capable of being managed by corporate leaders. This has sparked three debates. First, concerning how managers can change their company’s culture from ‘weak’ to ‘strong’. Second, how culture can help a company innovate and adjust rapidly to environmental changes. Third, the part played by leaders’ visions and styles of management in managing their cultures. This view assumes that senior company executives can and should exercise cultural leadership which maintains, promotes and develops their company’s culture. Some ‘culture managed’ writers, such as Fred Luthans (1995), argue that strong cultures can be created by management’s use of rewards and punishments.

In contrast, the ‘culture tolerated’ academics argue that employees’ deeply held values and beliefs cannot be modified in the short term using such external stimuli. Chris Grey was critical of culture management programmes. In his view, they had an ambitious desire to shape individuals’ beliefs. He stated that, ‘Culture management aspires to intervene in and regulate [employee] being, so that there is no distance between individuals’ purposes and those of the organization for which they work’.

Question 37

Contrasting Perspectives on Organizational culture (Managerial versus social science): Symbolic leadership versus management control

Answer 37

Symbolic leadership (or the management of organizational culture) is one way of encouraging employees to feel that they are working for something worthwhile, so that they will work harder and be more productive. Burman and Evans (2008) argue that it is only those managers who are also leaders who can impact culture in this way. These leaders said Carol Ray (1986, p. 294) ‘possess direct ties to the values and goals of the dominant elites in order to activate the emotion and sentiment which may lead to devotion, loyalty and commitment to the company’. The managerialist view holds that employees can be helped to internalize organizational values.

In contrast, the social science perspective, argues that symbolic leadership represents management’s attempt to get employees to direct their own behaviour themselves towards senior management’s goals. People enter organizations with different motivations, experiences and values. These natural individual differences tend to direct their behaviours in numerous, often divergent directions. Managers have always sought ways to control their employees, ensuring that they behave in relatively uniform and predictable ways.

Question 38

Groysberg et al (2018a): styles of organizational cultures and leadership frameworks

Answer 38

Boris Groysberg and his associates (2018a) developed this traits approach to culture. Using surveys, they studied the leadership styles and values of 1,300 executives and 25,000 employees in 230 organizations of various types in different industries and regions. The crucial variables that they believed distinguished firms were:
- How people interact: This dimension relates to an organization’s orientation towards people interactions. It ranges from highly independent to highly interdependent. Independent ones emphasize employee autonomy, individual action and competition. In contrast, interdependent ones stress integration, collaboration, managing relationships and coordinating group effort.
- How people to respond to change: This dimension concerns an organization’s orientation towards change. It ranges from flexibility to stability. A flexibility culture stresses adaptability, innovation, openness, diversity and long-term orientation. In contrast, a stability culture will prioritize consistency, predictability and maintenance of the status quo. It follows rules, reinforces hierarchy and strives for efficiency.

Question 39

Types of organizational cultures (Groysberg et al 2018): First quadrant (flexibility—interdependent)

Answer 39

Purpose (purpose-driven, idealistic, tolerant): Purpose is exemplified by idealism and altruism. Work environments are tolerant, compassionate places where people try to do good for the long-term future of the world. Employees are united by a focus on sustainability and global communities; leaders emphasize shared ideals and contributing to a greater cause.

Caring (warm, sincere, relational): Caring focuses on relationships and mutual trust. Work environments are warm, collaborative, and welcoming places where people help and support one another. Employees are united by loyalty; leaders emphasize sincerity, teamwork, and positive relationships.

Question 40

Types of organizational cultures (Groysberg et al 2018): Second quadrant (interdependent—stability)

Answer 40

Order (rule abiding, respectful, cooperative): Order is focused on respect, structure and shared norms. Work environments are methodical places where people tend to play by the rules and want to fit in. Employees are united by cooperation; leaders emphasize shared procedures and time-honoured customs

Safety (realistic, prepared, careful): Safety is defined by planning, caution and preparedness. Work environments are predictable places where people are risk-conscious and think things through carefully. Employees are united by a desire to feel protected and anticipate change; leaders emphasize being realistic and planning ahead.

Question 41

Types of organizational cultures (Groysberg et al 2018): Third quadrant (stability—independent)

Answer 41

Authority (bold, decisive, dominant): Authority is defined by strength, decisiveness, and boldness. Work environments are competitive places where people strive to gain personal advantage. Employees are united by strong control; leaders emphasize confidence and dominance.

Results (achievemen, driven, goal-focused): Results is characterized by achievement and winning. Work environments are outcome-oriented and meritbased places where people aspire to achieve top performance. Employees are united by a drive for capability and success; leaders emphasize goal accomplishment.

Question 42

Types of organizational cultures (Groysberg et al 2018): Forth quadrant (independent—flexibility)

Answer 42

Enjoyment (playful, instinctive, fun-loving): Enjoyment is expressed through fun and excitement. Work environments are light-hearted places where people tend to do what makes them happy. Employees are united by playfulness and stimulation; leaders emphasize spontaneity and a sense of humour.

Learning (open, inventive, exploring): Learning is characterized by exploration, expansiveness, and creativity. Work environments are inventive and open-minded places where people spark new ideas and explore alternatives. Employees are united by curiosity; leaders emphasize innovation, knowledge and adventure.

Question 43

’Strong culture’ vs ’weak culture’

Answer 43

A strong culture is defined by O’Reilly (1989) as one which possesses:
- Intensity: organizational members have a strong emotional attachment to the core values and norms of the organizations and are willing to display approval or disapproval of fellow members who act in certain ways.
- Sharedness: there is widespread agreement among employees about these organizational values and norms.

In contrast, a weak culture is one in which employees neither agree upon nor are emotionally attached to their organization’s core values.

Question 44

The contradiction between organizational culture and organizational performance

Answer 44

Denison et al. (2004) noted that models linking organizational culture and organizational performance have to deal with the contradiction of companies attempting to achieve both internal integration (getting all their departments and staff to work in tandem) and external adaptation (responding quickly and effectively to environmental changes). They write that organizations that are market-focused and opportunistic have problems with internal integration. In contrast, those that are well-integrated and over-controlled can have difficulties of external adaptation responding to their changing environments.

A strong culture may impede success if it encourages conformist attitudes. Miller (1994) suggested that it can cause inertia (clinging to past recipes); immoderation (foolish risk taking); inattention (selective perception of signals) and insularity (failure to adapt to the environment). Strong cultures are slow to develop and difficult to change. Strong cultures may not necessarily be ‘good’ cultures if they result in employees holding inappropriate attitudes and managers making wrong decisions. They can also impede attempts at successful mergers between companies whose different cultures do not ‘fit’ together.

Question 45

Appropriate culture: the solution to the the ”weak vs strong culture” argument

Answer 45

The most appropriate culture for any organization is one that ‘fits’ the organization’s environment, that is, it meets the challenges facing the company. Developing this theme, Groysberg et al. (2018b) identified five internal and external company factors to be considered:

• Strategy: Culture must support the business strategy. If a company has a low-cost corporate strategy, then an order and authority cultural style can maintain efficiency and keep costs low. If it has an innovation strategy, then enjoyment and learning styles can stimulate new ideas.
• Leadership: Culture can constrain or facilitate the performance of a chief executive. A lack of cultural fit between a company and the leadership style of an incoming chief executive can lead to failure at senior management level.
• Organizational design: Structure usually follows culture. Companies stressing teamwork and cooperation may emphasise caring and enjoyment cultural styles. However, a long- established structure can generate its own company culture.
• Industry: Cultures need to adapt to meet the demands of different industries with their own regulations and customer needs. Governmental financial regulations of banks may stress safety and order cultural styles in the future, while charities may emphasize caring and purpose styles.
• Region: Organizational culture is affected by national culture. Companies operating in countries which have a collectivist social orientation which values equity have cultural styles that emphasize order and safety like France. Those which are oriented to uncertainty, such as the USA emphasise learning, purpose and enjoyment styles.

Question 46

The influence of national culture on organizational culture

Answer 46

Laurent (1989) argued that national culture is more powerful and stable than organizational culture. Brooks (2018) saw organizational culture being partly the outcome of societal factors.

Researchers have studied how national cultures might affect organizational cultures in specific country settings. Attempts to establish a common organizational culture in a multi-national firm can be undermined by the strength of a national culture. An organization’s culture, while having unique properties, is necessarily embedded within the wider norms and values of the country in which its office and facilities are located. It is affected by the personal values that employees bring with them to work.

Question 47

The 9 dimensions of culture — AFGHIIPU

Answer 47

• Assertiveness: Individuals are bold, forceful, dominant, confrontational or demanding in relationships with others
• Future orientation: Individuals engage in future-oriented behaviours planning, delaying gratification and investing in the future.
• Gender differentiation: A collective minimizes different treatment of men and women, as through equal opportunities based on ability and performance.
• Humane orientation: A society or organization encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring and kind to others.
• Institutional collectivism: Organizational and government practices encourage and reward collective distribution of resources (as under socialism) and collective action.
• In-group collectivism: Individuals express pride, loyalty and cohesiveness to their organizations or families.
• Power distance: Members of a collective expect power to be distributed equally.
• Uncertainty avoidance: A society, organization or group relies on social norms, rules and procedures to alleviate unpredictability of future events

Question 48

Behaviourist approach to learning: Basic theory

Answer 48

The oldest theory of learning states that actions that are experienced together tend to be associated with each other (touching a flame, pain). We use knowledge of the outcomes of past behaviour to do better in future (don’t touch flames). We cannot learn without feedback. Feedback can be rewarding or punishing. If a particular behaviour is rewarded, then it is more likely to be repeated. If it is punished or ignored, it is likely to be avoided in future. This is known as the ‘law of effect’, which states that we learn to repeat behaviours that have favourable consequences, and avoid those that have neutral or undesirable outcomes.

Behaviourism makes subtle distinctions relating to reward and punishment (see Table 5.2.) With positive reinforcement, desired behaviours lead to positive consequences. With negative reinforcement, the undesirable outcomes continue until the desired behaviour occurs, at which point the negative consequences stop. As punishment follows undesirable behaviour, this is different from negative reinforcement. Where behaviour has no positive or negative outcomes, this can lead to the extinction of that behaviour, as it comes to be seen as unimportant.

Question 49

Behaviourist approach to learning: Pavlovian conditioning

Answer 49

Pavlovian conditioning, also known as classical and as respondent conditioning, was developed by the Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936). The best-known response which Pavlov studied concerned a dog salivating at the sight of food. Pavlov showed how this could be associated with a completely different stimulus, such as the sound of a bell.

If you show meat to a dog, it will produce saliva. The meat is the stimulus, the saliva is the response. The meat is an unconditioned stimulus; the dog salivates naturally, and the saliva is an unconditioned response. Unconditioned responses are also called reflexes. Suppose we ring a bell before we show the meat to the dog. Do this often enough, and the dog will associate the bell with the meat. Soon, it will salivate at the sound of the bell, without food being present. The bell has become a conditioned stimulus, and the saliva is now a conditioned response. The dog has learned from experience to salivate at the sound of a bell as well as at the sight of food. It does not have to be a bell. All manner of stimuli can be conditioned in this way. Suppose we now stop giving the meat to the dog after the bell. The dog will continue to salivate at the sound of the bell alone, expecting the bell to signal the arrival of food. If we continue to do this, however, the volume of saliva produced falls, and the association between the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response eventually suffers extinction.

Respondent conditioning comes from Watson’s stimulus-response psychology which stated that there was no behaviour, or no response, without a stimulus to set it in motion. One could thus condition a known response to a given stimulus. Such responses are called respondents.

Question 50

Behaviourist approach to learning: Skinnerian conditioning

Answer 50

Skinnerian conditioning (also known as instrumental and or operant conditioning) was discovered by the American psychologist Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–1990). With instrumental conditioning, new behaviours or responses become established through association with particular stimuli.

Where the consequence of a behaviour is desirable to the individual, then the frequency of that behaviour is likely to increase. In a given context, any behaviour that is rewarded or reinforced will tend to be repeated in that context. Skinner put a rat into a box (known as a ‘Skinner box’) with a lever which, when pressed, gave the animal food. The rat is not taught to press the lever. However, moving around the box, the rat eventually presses the lever. It may sit on it, knock it with its head, or push it with a paw. That random behaviour is reinforced with food, and so it is likely to happen again. Skinnerian conditioning is also called instrumental conditioning because it concerns behaviours that are a means (or instruments) to getting some material reward. Skinner’s rat has to be under the influence of some drive before it can be conditioned in this way. His rats were hungry when they went into his box, and their behaviour thus led to a desired reward.

Skinner observed that animals and humans behave in the absence of specific stimuli, such as a rat wandering around in his box. He argued that most human behaviour is of this kind. Behaviours that do not have identifiable stimuli are called operants.

Question 51

Behaviourist approach to learning: intermittent reinforcement

Answer 51

Skinner studied variations on the operant conditioning theme. One concerned the occasional reward of desired behaviour rather than delivering rewards in a continuous and regular way. This is closer to real life than a laboratory experiment. Why, for example, do gamblers keep playing when they lose most of the time? Behaviour can be maintained without regular and consistent reinforcement every time that it occurs.

The pattern and timing of rewards for desired behaviour is known as the schedule of reinforcement. The possible variation in schedules of reinforcement is limitless, and Skinner investigated the effects of a number of these.

*Remember: Reinforcing desired behaviour is generally more effective than punishing undesirable behaviour. However, C.C. Walters and J.E. Grusek (1977) suggested that punishment can be effective if it meets the following conditions: punishments must be quick, short, immediate and specific.

Question 52

Cognitive approach to learning: basic theory

Answer 52

The cognitive approach draws ideas from the field of cybernetics which was established by the American mathematician Norbert Wiener (1954). He defined cybernetics as ‘the science of communication in the animal and in the machine’. One central idea of cybernetics is the notion of the control of system performance through feedback.

In a domestic heating control system, the temperature standard is set on a thermostat, and a heater (effector) warms up the room. A thermometer measures changes in temperature, which is continually compared with the standard. When the room reaches the set temperature, the effector is switched off; when the room cools, it is switched on again. The cybernetic analogy says that this control loop is a model of what goes on in the mind. For standard, read motive, purpose, intent, or goals. The output is behaviour. Our senses are measuring devices. Our perception is the comparator which organizes and imposes meaning on the sensory data which control behaviour in pursuit of our goals. We each have an internal representation or ‘schema’ of ourselves and our environment. This internal representation is used in a purposive way to determine our behaviour.

We can also use information on how we are doing – feedback – to update our internal representation and to refine and adapt our plans. Feedback can either be self-generated – intrinsic feedback – or it can come from an external source – extrinsic feedback. Independent of the source and nature of the feedback, timing is also important. Feedback can arrive during, or after the behaviour that we are learning: in other words, it can be either concurrent feedback or delayed feedback. Intrinsic feedback is invariably concurrent. When you throw rings over pegs at the fair to win a soft toy, the intrinsic concurrent visual feedback means that you know immediately how well (or how badly) you are performing. Some extrinsic feedback is also concurrent; from a driving instructor, for example. However, for your next course assignment, feedback from your lecturer is going to be delayed. Instructors cannot provide concurrent feedback on your essay or project, but the longer the delay, the less effective the feedback is likely to be.

Question 53

Cognitive approach to learning: theory in practise

Answer 53

The process through which recruits are ‘shown the ropes’ is called socialization. One of the most influential advocates of social learning theory has been Albert Bandura (1977; 1986), who showed that we learn new behaviours by observing and copying others, through behavioural modelling. We copy the behaviour of others, and we do not need rewards or punishments to encourage us to do this. However, if the behaviours that we copy are successful (rewarded or reinforced by positive results), then we are more likely to continue to act in that way.

Bandura’s argument that we learn with social experience, through observation and modelling, does not mean that reinforcement is unimportant. Behavioural modelling involves the four processes of attention, retention, production and reinforcement shown in Figure 5.3. Suppose we choose to behave (taking a job interview, making new friends) by modelling ourselves on someone who is successful in those areas.

Question 54

The AGES model to learning information

Answer 54

Attention Learners must devote adequate undivided attention to the new material. We have an attention span of about 20 minutes, at which point we need variety and novelty.

Generation Learners need to generate their own connections to their existing knowledge. In a study that has been repeated many times, asking learners to take eight seconds to generate a response (own knowledge generation), which turns out to be wrong, followed by five seconds of studying the correct response (traditional learning), led to better recall than just studying the correct response for the full 13 seconds. We retain information better when it has personal significance.

Emotion Moderate levels of emotion are necessary to stimulate interest. Emotion is key to encouraging attention and enhancing memory. Positive emotions are key to effective learning transfer. Learners are less likely to engage with the subject matter if the process is associated with a negative emotion, such as a fear of failure.

Spacing Learning is more likely to stick when the learner returns to the material regularly. Instead of cramming lots of content into a long session, learning transfer and long-term memory are more effective when the learning is distributed – spaced – between discrete ‘chunks’ which are each delivered over a short time period. Leaving time between sessions may sound counterintuitive, but its crucial to learning and more effective than cramming.

Question 55

Personality and psychometrics: Basic definitions

Answer 55

Personality the psychological qualities that influence an individual’s characteristic behaviour patterns, in a stable and distinctive manner. Our personality affects how we deal with stress at work. It is widely believed that that personality is related to job performance and career success. Employers want to know whether we can do the job, work in a team, and be open to further development.

Psychometrics is the measurement of personality, intelligence and aptitude.

Question 56

Psychometric assessments: nomothetic approach

Answer 56

The nomothetic approach assumes that personality is predetermined, largely by genetics. It assumes that people vary on a common set of dimensions as in character, temperament and predispositions, which can be then measured and compared with others to establish your score against the average and distribution of scores on each dimension. The tests conducted in this approach are normally self-questionnaires based on forced choice questions.

Question 57

Psychometric assesment: idiographic approach

Answer 57

Idiographic means ‘writing about individuals’. Psychologists using this perspective begin with a detailed picture of one person, aiming to capture their unique richness and complexity. This is a valuable way of deepening our understanding, but does not produce universal laws of behaviour.

The idiographic approach assumes 1) we have unique traits which cannot be compared with others, 2) behaviour is not purely hereditary but also shaped by the environment, 3) we learn about ourselves through social interactions and behave in accordance with our self-concept, and 4) that personality can change with social experiences (it is through interaction with others that we learn to understand ourselves as individuals).

Idiographic research uses qualitative methods and many sources: information posted on social media, interviews, letters, diaries, biographies, what people say about themselves.

Question 58

Integrity testing: case study

Answer 58

Employers want staff who are conscientious, dependable and honest. Many companies use integrity tests to identify those who could pose risks, through dishonesty, cheating, lying, stealing, drug abuse, racism, sexism, and violent and criminal behaviour. After using integrity testing in 600 of its 1,900 stores, one American retailer reported a 35 per cent drop in the loss (or theft) of stock in its stores, while losses rose by over 10 per cent in stores that did not use integrity testing (Arnold and Jones, 2006). Paul Whitely (2012) at the University of Essex Centre for the Study of Integrity has developed a test that asks you to rate the following ten items using these scores and ratings:

a. Avoiding paying the fare on public transport
b. Cheating on taxes if you have a chance
c. Driving faster than the speed limit
d. Keeping money you found in the street
e. Lying in your own interests
f. Not reporting accidental damage you’ve done to a parked car
g. Throwing away litter in a public place
h. Driving under the influence of alcohol
i. Making up things on a job application
j. Buying something you know is stolen

(Never justified 1p, Rarely justified 2p, Sometimes justified 3p, Always justified 4p)

• If your score is up to 15p= You are very honest and really want to do the right thing
• If your score is 15 to 19p= Your integrity is above average but you don’t mind bending the rules
• If your score is 20 to 24= You are relaxed about breaking the rules when it suits you
• If your score is 25 and above= You don’t believe in rules and it’s easy to break them when it suits you

Question 59

Type A personality and Type B personality

Answer 59

Type A personalities are ambitious, impatient, hostile individuals who experience a constant sense of time-pressure. They thrive on high workloads, long hours and tight deadlines. These personalities can be desirable for organizations, however, they are prone to create stress in others, may be unable to analyze xomplex issues and be unsuitable for certain management roles.

Type B personalities are opposite to Type A’s. They are relaxed individuals, who focus little on achievement and enjoy leisure.

Question 60

Organizational stressors: specific causes of stress

Answer 60

Any condition that requires an adaptive response is known as a stressor. The pace of life and constant change generate stress by increasing the range and intensity of the demands on our time.
Typical stressors that arise in organizations are:
- Inadequate physical working environment: noise, bad lighting, poor ventilation, lack of privacy, extremes of heat and cold, old and unreliable equipment.
- Inappropriate job design: poor coordination, poor training, lack of information, rigid procedures, inadequate staffing, high workloads, no challenge, little use of skills, no responsibility or participation in decision making, role ambiguity.
- Poor management style: inconsistent, competitive, crisis management, autocratic management, excessive time pressures.
- Poor relationships: with superiors, with colleagues, with particular individuals, lack of feedback, little social contact, racial and sexual harassment.
- Uncertain future: job insecurity, fear of unemployment or redeployment, few promotion opportunities, low-status job.
- Divided loyalties: conflicts between personal aspirations and organizational requirements, conflict between job and family and social responsibilities.

Question 61

The Two types of stress: eustress and distress

Answer 61

Eustress is a stress that is normally arousing and exciting, enhances our sense of satisfaction and accomplishment, and improves. our performance. Distress is the opposite, the unpleasant, unhealthy side of stress.

The three factors moderating the impact of stress are condition (good health correlates with better stress management), cognitive appraisal (the belief of being unable to cope with an event can lead to a self-fullfilling prophecy) and hardiness (an outlook characterized by being welcoming to change, commitment to purposeful to activity and a sense of being in control).

Question 62

Stress management strategies: individual emotion-focused and organizational problem-focused

Answer 62

Individual emotion-focused strategies improve resilience and coping skills and include:
• Consciousness-raising to improve self-awareness
• Exercise and fitness programmes
• Self-help training, in biofeedback, meditation, relaxation, coping strategies
• Time management training
• Development of other social and job interests.

Organizational problem-focused strategies deal directly with the stressors and include:
• Improved selection and training
• Staff counselling
• Improved organizational communications
• Job redesign and enrichment strategies
• Development of teamworking.

Question 63

The Big Five cluster traits: OCEAN

Answer 63

• Openness refers to rigidity of beliefs and range of interests. These run on a continuum from ‘Explorer (O+)’ to ‘Preserver (O-)’. Explorers (O+) are creative, curious, open-minded and
  intellectual, traits which are useful for entrepreneurs, architects, change agents, artists and theoretical scientists. Preservers (O-) are conventional, unimaginative and narrow-minded and make good finance managers, stage performers, project managers and applied scientists. Those in the middle (O) are labelled ‘moderates’ who are interested in novelty when necessity commands, but not for too long.
• Conscientiousness refers to the desire to impose order and precision. This continuum runs from ‘Focused (C+)’ to ‘Flexible (C-)’. Focused (C+) are organized, self-disciplined and achievement-oriented, traits useful for leaders, senior executives and other high achievers. Flexibles (C-) are disorganized, careless, frivolous and irresponsible and make great researchers, detectives and management consultants. Those in the middle (C) are ‘balanced’, and find it easy to move from focus to being flexible, from production to research.
• Extraversion refers to the level of comfort with relationships. This continuum runs from ‘Extravert (E+)’ to ‘Introvert (E-)’. Extraverts (E+) are outgoing, sociable, talkative and assertive which are useful traits in sales, politics and the arts. Introverts (E-) are reserved, quiet and introverted which is useful for production management, and in the physical and natural sciences. Those in the middle (E) are ‘ambiverts’ who move easily from isolation to social settings.
• Agreeableness refers to the ability to get along with others. This continuum runs from ‘Adapter (A+)’ to ‘Challenger (A-)’. Adapters (A+) are good-natured, trusting, compliant and soft-hearted which are useful traits in teaching, social work and psychology. Challengers (A-) are Rude, quarrelsome, uncaring, irritable and uncooperative which are useful traits in advertising, management and military leadership. Those in the middle (A) are ‘negotiators’ who move from leadership to followership as the situation demands.
• Neuroticism refers to the tendency to maintain a balanced emotional state. This continuum runs from ‘Reactive (N+)’ to ‘Resilient (N-)’. Reactives (emotional) or ‘N+’ traits are anxious, depressed and
  self-conscious and make great social scientists, academics, and customer service professionals, but extreme reactivity interferes with intellectual performance. Resilients (unflappable) or ‘N-’ traits are calm, contented and self-assured and make great air traffic controllers, airline pilots, military snipers, finance managers and engineers. Those in the middle (N) are ‘responsives’, able to use levels of emotionality appropriate to the circumstances.

Question 64

The HEXACO model: the H-factor

Answer 64

The HEXACO model is nearly identical to the Big Five model. However, has now discovered a sixth personality dimension, which has been labelled ‘the H factor’. Identified by Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee, the H dimension concerns Honesty– Humility.

High honest-humility individuals are characterized as sincere, honest, faithful, loyal, modest and unassuming. They avoid manipulating others, do not break the rules, are not interested in wealth, and do not consider themselves worthy of high social status.

In contrast, low honest-humility individuals are characterized as sly, deceitful, greedy, pretentious, hypocritical, boastful and pompous. They tend to flatter others to get what they want, break the rules when it suits them, are motivated by financial gain, and have a strong sense of their self-importance.

Question 65

The Self: ”I” and ”Me”

Answer 65

The ”I” refers to the unique, individual, conscious and impulsive aspects of the individual while the ”Me” relates to the norms and values of society that the individual learns and accepts, or
‘internalizes’.

Mead used the term ”generalized other” to refer to the set of expectations that we believe others have of us. ‘Me’ is the part of self where these generalized attitudes are organized. ‘Me’ refers to the mental process that enables us to reflect on our own conduct. ‘Me’ is the self as an object to itself. The ‘I’ is the active, impulsive component of the self. Other people encourage us to conform to current values and beliefs. Reflective individuals adjust their part in the social process. We can initiate change by introducing new social values.

Question 66

Unconditional Positive Regard: A way to tap into an individuals full potential?

Answer 66

Rogers argued that at the core of human personality is the desire to realize fully one’s potential. To achieve this, the right social environment is required, one in which we are treated with unconditional positive regard. This means that you are accepted for who you are, valued, trusted, and respected, even in the face of characteristics which others dislike. In this environment, we are likely to become trusting, spontaneous, and flexible, with a rich and meaningful life and a harmonious self-concept. However, this is different from the social environment in many contemporary organizations. Most of us face highly conditional regard, in which a narrow range of thoughts and behaviours is accepted.

The concept of regard may sound vague and abstract, and unrelated to work behaviour. However, in a series of experiments and field studies, Natalie Shefer et al. (2018) found that those who received unconditional positive regard from colleagues at work displayed higher energy, organizational citizenship behaviours, and job performance. The researchers argue that work relationships tend to be seen in instrumental terms, and that we need instead to ‘embrace a more humanizing approach to the ways people relate to each other’. They conclude that ‘Co-workers should realize that small acts that convey positive regard can make a considerable difference in people’s lives at work’

Question 67

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): A route into the mind?

Answer 67

Any approach to studying your self-understanding with questions worded by someone else is not going to work as their wordings may be irrelevant your self-concept. A way around this is to people to write and to talk about themselves. With free association, interpretation of dreams, and the analysis of fantasies, the individual has freedom of expression, and responses are not tied to given categories. One such technique is the thematic apperception test, or TAT.

The TAT is a projective test as it allows individuals to project their personalities into text. The test involves showing multiple pictures or drawing of individuals and asked to write an imaginative story. Your imaginative accounts are then assessed in various ways. One of these concerns your need for achievement. In other words, does somebody in your story want to perform better? This could involve doing something better than someone else, meeting or exceeding a self-imposed standard of excellence, doing something unique, or being involved in doing something well. Points are scored for the presence of these features in your story. The more achievement imagery, the higher your score.

The TAT is widely used in psychological research, occupational choice, psychiatric evaluation, and screening candidates for high-stress jobs. The TAT is also used to measure the needs for power and affiliation, using similar scoring procedures, but looking for different imagery. In the original full test, you are asked to write stories about 31 pictures. The question is – what can short, creative stories about ambiguous pictures tell us about your distinctive and stable personality characteristics?

Evidence supports that people with a strong concern with achievement are likely to write stories with lots of achievement imagery and themes.