exam1 Flashcards
1
Q
wildlife = …
A
animals living in a wild state (non-domesticated).
By convention includes: birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians
(fishes, insect, other invertebs are also wildlife)
2
Q
evolution = …
A
Darwin: modification through descent
Modern: changes in gene frequencies within populations over time
3
Q
co-evolution
A
evolution of two interacting populations in response to their reciprocal effects on each other
(ex: herbivore vs. toxic plant)
4
Q
convergent evolution
A
unrelated spp evolving similar traits due to similar enviro conditions or niches
5
Q
evolution by natural selection
A
- indiv traits vary (differential genotype reproduction)
- fitness varies (diffrential survival/reprod from variation in heitable traits)
- traits can be inherited
-
individuals are selected, populations evolve
- selects indiv w/ high fitness (lifetime reprod success)
- mutation is random, selection is deterministic
- selection can push towards genetic uniformity
- stabilizing / directional / disruptive
- selection can push towards genetic uniformity
6
Q
fitness landscape
A
- pattern of fitness variability in a population
- is dynamic: when the environment changes, new genotype may be selected (e.g. Darwin’s finches)
7
Q
genetic drift
A
- chance change in gene frequencies (from more offspring)
- gene freqs of next generation are function of luck instead of fitness
- strength of drift increases as population size decreases
- chance events more likely w/ small sample size
- don’t assume traits are adaptations, might just be drift…
- sampling error due to small # of breeders
- founder effect
- bottleneck effect
8
Q
adaptation
A
a character or suite of characters that helps an individual cope w/ its environment (improves fitness)
9
Q
challenges of hot (4) and cold (2)
A
- hot
- denatures proteins
- accelerates chemical rxns
- affects properties of lipids
- typical upper limit for most animals: 45°C
- cold
- disrupts life processes (slows chem rxns)
- ice crystals damage cell structures
10
Q
poikilotherms
A
- internal body temp fluctuates w/ that of the ambient environment
- reptiles, amphibians, fish; most are ectotherms (req’s ext heat)
- advantages:
- low energy expenditure
- can live w/o food for a long time
- can be very small as heat loss not an issue
- low energy expenditure
- costs:
- inability to exploit cold environments
- impaired performance while warming up
- reduced stamina; energy stores recover slowly
11
Q
homeotherms
A
- maintain constant internal body temp (regardless of env)
- primarily endothermic birds & mammals (heat produced internally from metabolism)
- note: not all homeotherms are endotherms
- some ectotherms maintain constant body temp by behaviorial regulation
- non bird/mammal endotherms
- some fish, like Tuna
- Leatherback turtle
12
Q
Leatherback turtle
A
- endothermic
- heat conserved by large body size
- endothermy allows swift movement, even in cold water
- in warm water: reduces activity to dissipate heat
13
Q
graphic: endo/ecto/homeo/poikilo
A
14
Q
homeothermy adv/costs
A
- advantages
- can live/function optimally in wide variety of environments
- greater stamina; energy stores recover rapidly
- can respond rapidly to environmental stimulii
- costs
- enzymes are specialized to narrow range of body temp
- lots of energy req’d to maintain Tb outside
- *thermo-neutral zone (TNZ)**
* must eat lots of food
* smaller orgs have higher surface:volume, so rapidly lose heat to ambient env
15
Q
hypothermic homeothermy adaptations (structural) (4)
A
- to be a ball is best (ex: Pika)
- Allen’s rule: homeotherms in cold climates have small extremeties
- Bergmann’s rule: “ “ “ “ … tend to be larger
- fur: guard hairs + underfur trap air
- feather
- fluffing traps air
- oil matting makes thermal window -> hypothermia
- blubber
16
Q
hypothermic homeothermy adaptations (physiological)
A
- increased heat production
- activity (elevated metabolism)
- shivering
- vasoconstriction
- narrowing of superficial blood vessels diverts flow of heated blood to body core
-
countercurrent heat exchange
- weak temp gradient at interface w/ ambient environment reduces heat loss
17
Q
hypothermic homeothermy adaptations (behavioral)
A
- migration
- burrowing
- change posture (be a ball)
- form tightly packed groups (penguins, quail, bison)
- hibernation & torpor
- hibernation is a type of torpor, but not triggered by environment
- common in ground squirrels, bats, hummingbirds (at night)
- can consume 1% of resources while inactive, but arousal is costly
18
Q
hyperthermic homeothermy adaptations
A
- structural
- small size
- thermal windows
- birds: gular pouch, feet, legs, face
- mammals: face, feet, arm pits, core
- physiological
- mammals: sweating, panting
- birds: no sweat glands, so evap via lungs, air sacs, gular pouch (ex of gular pouch puff: male frigate bird)
- vasodilation
- countercurrent heat exchange
- heat storage in large mammals, birds
- body vol aborbs heat in day, releases at night (camels)
- behavioral
- reduced activity
- increased water intake
- seek cooler activity times / space
- estivation (summer hibernation)
- become crepuscular or nocturnal
- seek shade / veg / water
- go underground (fossorial)
- ex: Lacertid lizard: sunny microsites for basking
19
Q
Black-capped Vireo (Vireo atricapilla)
A
- drivers of pop dynamics (reprod, dispersal, mortality)
- veg, community, connectivity, density
- very diverse songs, “shrad”
- likes to breed in ankle->shoulder-height shrubs
- Threats:
- shrubland -> grazing (goat/cow) / agriculture
- urbanization
- wildfire suppression
- shrubs -> forests
- invasives fill in shrub canopy
- brown-headed cowbird
- migratory bison -> stationary cattle
- successful recovery at Ft. Hood by cowbird extermination
- Lauren’s study compared recovered pops w/ surrouding areas
- mist netting
- banding / measurements
- spot mapping to delineate banded bird territories
- band nestlings that live > 6 days
- reasons for nest failure
- weather
- predators
- parasitism
- results: most pops in decline
20
Q
living requires energy
A
- multicellular > single celled
- large animals > small animals
- homeotherms > poikilotherms
21
Q
food challenges for heterotrophs
A
- energy packaged in other orgs is limited (10% rule)
- other orgs don’t want to be eaten
- so, hets are under pressure to be efficient in finding & processing of food
22
Q
foraging: finding, consuming, & processing of food
(4 types)
A
- herbivores: consumes plants, usually w/o killing
- grazers: grasses & herbaceous veg
- browsers: woody veg
- predators
- consume all or part of others orgs, killing them in the process
- parasites: consume parts of hosts w/o killing them
- neg effect on host
-
rare in wildlife spp
- ex: common vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus
- scavengers
- consume dead organic material
- no direct effect on pops producing the resource
- important recyclers of nutrients
- ex: Black vultures
- consume dead organic material
23
Q
predator vs. herbivore
A
- predation: high quality food, but hard to come by
- herbivory: plentiful but low quality, hard to digest food
- smallest homeotherms can’t survive on plants
- ex: Pygmy shrew
24
Q
optimal diet theory
A
trade-off: benefits & costs paid in currency of fitness
Enet = Ein - Eout
Erate = Enet / Tforaging
try to maximize Erate!
25
Q
morphological forager adaptations for processing food
A
- limb mods to manipulate food prey (tearing vs. grasping)
- jaws/teeth adapted to diet (crushing vs. tearing vs. browsing)
- snakes: quadrate bone
- birds have gizzards (muscular grinding)
- behavioral adaptation of eating grit/rocks
- herbivores:
- long digestive tracts w/ fermentation chambers
- some have rumen (holds food for later regurg/re-chew,
& also ferments) -
hind-gut fermenters have microbes in cecum & large intestine
- often req’s coprophagy
26
Q
specialists / generalists
A
- at species level:
- generalist: wide range of resources
- specialist: narrow range of resources
- at population level:
- individual generalist: indiv. whose diet/habitat breadth matches that of population
- individual specialist: indiv. whose diet/habitat breadth is restricted relative to that of pop.
- under stable conditions, evolution favors specialists
- but rapid change favors generalists
- climate change + hab loss/frag + invasives = fast rate of change
- > worldwide decline in specialists
- spp can be both spec & gen, maximizing just one aspect of hab
- ex: burrowing owl
27
Q
Bobcat (Lynx rufus)
A
- mesocarnivore (6-13kg, 13-30lbs)
- broad NA distribution
- broad diet (generalist)
- leporids, small mammals, birds, bats, deer
- pop stable or increasing
- better mgmt of furbearer harvest
- able to cope w/ human land use
28
Q
Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis)
A
- only wild cat adapted to northern woodland / boreal forest
- dense, silvery brown fur
- so efficient at trapping heat that snow around them
doesn’t melt
- so efficient at trapping heat that snow around them
- HUGE feet (same size at Mtn Lion w/ 1/5th body size)
- paws are spread out & full of super dense, stiff fur
- = low footload (31g/280cm2 vs coyote: 136/77cm2)
- more common across snowy boreal forests of NA
- not found w/o deep winter snow
- cannot survive w/o ss hares (excellent hind-gut fermenter: can eat pine needles)
- threatened status in WA & US
- < 50 in wA
- modern threats:
- timber over-harvest
- hab frag
- catastrophic fires
- climate change
- trapping in source pops
- competition w/ generalist predators
29
Q
Lauren’s lynx study
A
- study Q’s:
- what factors influence hare survival?
- do predation sites differ from surrounding landscape?
- what are attributes of successful lynx foraging habitat?
- trapped & tagged ss hares, monitored survival
- then bunny csi + vegetation plots
- predator ident by leftovers, predatory sign, salival dna, hairs
30
Q
wildlife basic needs
A
- heterotrophs need:
- food
- for growth, maintenance
- water
- sometimes exclusively from food
- rest (not nec. sleep)
- often involves finding shelter / cover
- food
- must find mates & reprod & survive long enough to do so
- collectively, needs dictate habitat use
31
Q
habitat
A
- any area offering the resources and conditions that promote occupancy by a species
- resources: food, cover, shelter, etc
- conditions: climate, terrain
- species-specific (not always wilderness)
- not “are they ever in that location” but “does that area support them?”
32
Q
habitat use
A
- the way an animal uses the collection of conditions and resources in a habitat
- conditions: spatially & temporally variable
- hab. use is a measure of how much time an animal allocates to particular locations across a landscape
- can measure for ind’s, pops, spp.
- can quantify for all behaviors combines or specific behaviors
33
Q
habitat use is hierarchical…
A
- 1st order: geographic range
- global spatial scale (macroscale) of species
- 2nd order:
- pattern of use at landscape spatial scale that
determines home range of individual or social group
- pattern of use at landscape spatial scale that
- 3rd order:
- pattern of use at of resources & conditions w/in an individual or social group’s home range
- most commonly studied
- can be average to describe population, species patterns
- 4th order:
- fine-scale pattern of use of R&C at particular locations w/in home range
- ex: certain plants, but not others, by wildebeest
34
Q
habitat != veg, but…
A
- hab use is strongly influences by veg / ground characteristics
- structure:
- shelter from predators / enemies
- thermoregulation
- niche space
- food
- who comes to eat there
35
Q
hab use methodology
A
- direct observation
- tracking (or other animals signs like calls, feces)
- vhf telemetry
- satellite telemetry
- animal-borne video cams
- must weigh < 3-5% of animal body weight
36
Q
Cougar Hunting Behavior in a Managed Landscape, Clint Robins
Puma concolor
A
- mtn lion / puma / cougar (~80 common names, world record)
- crepuscular (active at dawn/dusk)
- solitary, stalking predator w/ large territories
- largest range (NA -> SA) of any terrestrial mammal
- no natural predators
- extirpated from east US during euro-colonization
- West Cascafes Cougar Project (2012)
- 6-8yr project to improve understanding of cougar pop characteristics, residential area use, interactions w/ ppl
- Clint’s research: cougar hunting behavior & interspecific interactions at kill sites along urban-to-wildland gradient
37
Q
types of animal movement
A
- normal:
- movements w/in home range
- exploratory trips beyond home range boundary
- dispersal:
- permanent movement of org from home population
- natal: from birth place to site where it reproduces
- happens once
- breeding: mvmt of adults b/t breeding area
- can occur multiple times
- migration
- repeated movements b/t 2+ home ranges
38
Q
dispersal
A
- why?
- inbreeding avoidance
- competition for mates
- competition for resources
- mammals: males more likely to disperse
- female reprod success limited by nutritional constraints
- males are limited by females
- birds: females more likely to disperse
- males establish a defend breeding territories
- may benefit more from familiarity w/ local surroundings
*
39
Q
migration
A
- why?
- avoid harmful conditions (heat, cold)
- altitudinal (mule deer)
- latitudinal (arctic tern, 22,000mi each way
between Arctic & Antarctic)
- follow resource (food, water)
- serengetti wildebeest follow the rain
b/t Kenya and Tanzania
- serengetti wildebeest follow the rain
- component of lifeycle req. diff. environments
- forage in one, breed in another
- ex: Green turtle
- avoid harmful conditions (heat, cold)
- amazing migrations
- Sooty shearwaters (Puffinus griseus)
- Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae)
- Alpine swifts (Tachymarptis melba)
- airborne for 6 months, including mating
- eats atmospheric plankton
- Conservation implications
- must consider all activity spaces of mig route, including stopovers (rest & refuel)
40
Q
wildlife populations
A
- groups of animals, all of same species, that live together in a particular area & can interbeed
- however, pops don’t lie in isolation at larger scale
- dispersal creates connections b/t pops
- -> metapopulation: a pop of pops
- dispersal creates connections b/t pops
41
Q
metapopulation
A
- a pop of pops
- geographically separated
- consist of same spp
-
limited interaction at some level, generally through dispersal
- at least some genetic exchange
- conservation note: wildlife spp cannot repopulate areas (aka historic ranges) w/o sources
42
Q
study of wildlife pops involves… (3)
A
- description of pop characteristics
- exploration of determinants of pop size
- mathematical modeling to predict growth
43
Q
pop delineaters
A
- geographic barriers
- habitat boundaries
- animal interactions
- intraspecific: borders set by adjacent pops of same spp w/ whcih interbreeding is rare
- interspecific: competition, parasitism, predation
- ex: Golden mantled ground squirrel will mess you up__
44
Q
pop characteristics
A
- frequency of different genotypes (genetic structure)
- age structure
- proportion of ind’s in diff. age classes
- influences pop growth trajectory
- dispersion: density & spacing of ind’s in a pop
45
Q
dispersion
A
- describes the spacing of individuals in a population with respect to one another
- patterns
- clumped / clustered: individuals in discrete groups
- social predisposition (bushtits), for thermoreg, foraging, protection
- progeny stick to parents
- clumped distrib of resources (taz clump when feeding)
- (note: Taz has srongest bite force per body mass)
- uniform / evenly spaced: ind’s maintain min. distance from other ind’s; usually only relatively even
- arises from interactions b/t ind’s
- territoriality: sometimes reduced if neighbors are familiar (“dear enemy” effect), ex: Tawny dragon
- random: in’d spaced independently of one another
- overlapping home ranges (no territoriality)
- randomly distrib. resources
- clumped / clustered: individuals in discrete groups
46
Q
reproduction
A
- process by which orgs produce individuals of the same kind
- sexual: new indivs produced by combination of genetic material from two parents
- two-fold cost: txfrs only half of genome to next gen
- but also increases diversity -> adaptability in populations
- asexual: near perfect copy of parent
- sexual: new indivs produced by combination of genetic material from two parents
47
Q
reproductive strategies
A
- K-selected (ex: mtn gorillas)
- long lived
- few offspring
- much parental care
- low mortality rate
- r-selected (ex: Pacific treefrog, 400-750 eggs)
- short lived
- many offspring
- little parental care
- high mortality rate
- mate choice effects reprod success
48
Q
sexual selection
A
- special case of natural selection
- on average (not all…)
- female choice: inter-sexual selection
- male-male competition: intra-sexual selection
- why?
- sperm is cheap, eggs are expensive
- greater variance in reprod. fitness in males
- higher female investment limits output
- can lead to sexual dimorphism (wood duck)
- can lead to sexual traits that are otherwise costly
- energetically expensive
- may be dangerous to health & survival (maladaptive)
- male indian peafowl (peacock)
49
Q
mating systems (4)
A
- monogamy: one male, one female
- lifetime or serial
- +: shared aprental care, resource defense
- -: less diverse offspring (solved by extra-pair copulations
- polygyny: one male, many females (african lion)
- +: fems get a high-quality male, co-op child rearing, better home resources
- -: low operational sex ratio (few males get to mate), reduced effective pop size, more maladaptive traits in males
- lek mating (sage grouse): males display competitively
- polyandry: many males, one female
(Moustached tamarin, Garter snake)- sequential or simultaneous
- same +/- as polygyny w/ sex roles can be reversed
- promiscuity: many males, many females (chimps)
- low skew in mating success among indivs
- competition often in form of sperm competition
- & - : narrower range of reprod success
50
Q
population growth
A
- populations increase in proportion to their size
- exponential
- continuous (r)
- discrete (λ)
- logistic (K)
51
Q
exponential population growth = growing unchecked
A
-
continuous exponential growth
- indivs added w/o interruption
- dN/dt = rN
- proportional to r
- r (i.e. b - d) > 0 : increase
- r = 0 : no change
- r < 0 : decrease
- proportional to N
- larger pop = faster rate of change
-
discrete exponential growth (aka geometric)
- indivs added in pulses
- Nt+1 = λ(Nt)
- recursive, output -> input
- solution after t intervals
- Nt = λt(N0)
- a pop is…
- growing when λ > 1 or r > 0
- constant when λ = 1 or r = 0
- declining when 0 < λ < 1 or r < 0
52
Q
density dependence = decreasing growth w/ increasing pop size
A
- a growing population causes
- crowding
- reduced access to food
- aggravated social strife
- promotes spread of disease
- attracts attention of predators
- so pop growth slow and eventually stops
- modeled with logistic growth model
- carrying capacity (K) = size at which no more indivs can be supported over long time periods
53
Q
logistic growth model
A
- dN / dt = rN ( 1- N/K )
- results in S-shaped curve (sigmoid growth)
- inflection point at K/2 separates accelerating & decelerating phases of growth
-
2 key assumptions:
- no age or size structure
- constant B & D over time
54
Q
fecundity = …
A
female offspring per female
55
Q
stable age distribution
A
equilibrium in which proportion of each age class does not change, so population grows with constant survival & fecundity
56
Q
life table
A
age-specific schedules of survival & fecundity
57
Q
Marine Bird Ecology & Conservation on the Farallon Islands
A
- basic seabird biological attributes
- speialized feeding adaptations
- temp regulation (nesting; at sea)
- fat / down feathers / contour feathers
- lower repod. potential
- nesting areas isolated, safe from land predation
- permanent pair bonds
- increased mating efficiency
- bonded by nest site, split up after breeding
- migratory
- philopatric - tendency of birds to return to birth place or previous nesting site
- major taxonomic groups
- Procellariiformes: petrels (1’ wingspan), storm petrels, shearwaters, Wandering albatrosses (10’ wingspan)
- Pelecaniformes: pelicans, cormorants (double-crested here)
- Charadiformes: Alcidae (Common Murre / underwater rocket bird); gulls (scavengers); terns (fisheaters)
- Anseriformes: marine ducks; geese; swans
- Other: loons; grebes
- SE Farallon Island (west of SF)
- protected in various ways, including National Wildlife Refuge System (thanks Teddy R!)
- located above a “shelf break” = lots of food
- former Northern Fur Seal rookery (now in AK)
- formerly Coast Guard station
- 19th century: european hares intro’d, denuded island, increasing erosion, causing nest burrows to collapse
- exterminated in 1980s
- Pt Reyes Bird Observatory -> Pt. Blue Conservation Science
- Western Gull (since seals left)
- Common Murre
- egg harvests during gold rush dropped pop from 1million -> 10K, but has since recovered a bit
- lays one egg per year, no nest
- hue/spot pattern unique per bird
- huge egg = huge investment
- Cassin’s Auklet
- small; nest @ night to avoid competition from larger birds (esp. gulls)
- sharp toenails -> nest burrows
- tends to nest under path/rail car line
- Tufted puffin: cavity nester
- Rhinocerous Auklet
- Ashy & Leach’s storm petrel
- Black oystercatcher
- Major threats to population
- ocean currents, upwelling (el nino = Murre pop drop)
- water temp / level (global cc)
- chemical contamination (esp. hydrocarbons, reduces shell thickness -> cracks)
- oil pollution: mats down -> thermal windows -> death
- gill-netting
- disturbance @ breeding areas & along migratory routes
- Conservation Measures:
- protect breeding & staging areas
- reduce chemical contaminants
- reduce plastic particle pollution
- reduce effects of gillnetting
- protect prey fish populations
- educate the public
