Exam Two (lectures 9-16) Flashcards
1
Q
upper epidermis with cuticle
A
at the very top, cuticle is a protective, waxy coating of cutin on the epidermis cells that restricts water loss
2
Q
palisade mesophyll
A
densely packed, columnar-shaped, elongated cells full of chlorplasts
3
Q
chloroplasts
A
structures inside plant cells that contain chlorophyll
the site of light capture during photosynthesis
4
Q
vascular bundle
A
xylem, phloem, bundle sheath nearby parenchyma
highly adapted for transport of fluids
5
Q
spongy mesophyll
A
loosely packed cells with large air spaces in between which allow movement and exchange of gases
6
Q
which gases are related to the spongy mesophyll?
A
oxygen
carbon dioxide
water vapor
7
Q
do spongy mesophyll cells contain chloroplasts?
A
yes
8
Q
stomata
A
holes in the leaf surface that allow gas exchange between the atmosphere and internal parts of the leaf
9
Q
what is the role of the lower epidermis with guard cells?
A
regulators of the size of the stomata
10
Q
draw and label the anatomy of a leaf
A
follow link to lecture 9 for image:
https://ay14.moodle.umn.edu/pluginfile.php/701329/mod_resource/content/1/Lesson%209%20-%20Inside%20Leaves%20and%20Transpiration%20F14%20upload%20ready.html
11
Q
why do leaves appear green?
A
chlorophyll absorbs red and blue wavelengths of light to power photosynthesis and reflects green back to our eyes
12
Q
chromoplasts
NOT chloroplast
A
cellular organelles that contain types and colors of pigments other than chloroplasts
13
Q
why do leaves change colors?
A
the mesophyll cell chloroplasts produce chlorophyll at a slower rate than earlier in the year because it is nearing its functional lifespan
chlorophyll replacement doesn’t make up for chlorophyll loss so the green color fades out of the leaves
the non-green pigments in the chromoplasts are holding their own or increasing in quantity
yellows, oranges - carotinoid pigments
reds - anthocyanin pigments
14
Q
how long are carotinoid pigments present in leaves?
A
all growing season
during the warm part of the season these colors are hidden by high concentrations of chlorophyll
orange and yellow colors can be counted on every year
15
Q
when fall/autumn rolls around, why do we see an assortment of reds, oranges, yellows, and greens in leaves?
A
the carotinoids don’t degenerate as quickly as the chlorophyll
16
Q
can the amount of anthocyanins be counted on each year? why or why not?
A
no
anthocyanins are produced primarily in the autumn in response to bright light and excess plant sugars in leaf cells
17
Q
warm/bright days + cool nights = [insert color of leaves]
A
red
18
Q
Is the effect of weather on anthocyanin noticeable for trees like sugar maples?
A
yes, you can see combinations of color where the sun hits
19
Q
Is the effect of weather on anthocyanin noticeable in woody plans like sumac?
A
no, seem to be bright red in late september/early october regardless of weather
20
Q
Is the effect of weather on anthocyanin noticeable for trees like birch and oak?
A
no, they will be yellow or tan even with warm bright days and cool nights
21
Q
true or false:
the palisade mesophyll is not adapted for capturing light energy
A
false, it is highly adapted
22
Q
what is the relationship of oxygen to plants?
A
it is considered a waste product
this is why during photosynthesis healthy plants must be able to move oxygen OUT of the leaves and carbon dioxide INTO the leaves
23
Q
process of water molecules as they move through a plant
A
taken up by roots
move up the stem
into the leaves
out the stomata in the
leaves
evaporate into the atmosphere
24
Q
oxygen escapes through the…
A
stomata
25
when the stomata is open...
water vapor exists
26
evaspotranspiration (often just transpiration)
the movement of water in the plant from root to stem to leave and out through the stomata to the atmosphere
27
how man gallons of water will an acre of corn transpire in one day?
3,000-4,000
28
how many gallons of water will a large oak tree transpire in a year?
40,000
29
light
| in relation to transpiration
plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark - the stomata are stimulated to be open in the light of the day
30
temperature
| in relation to transpiration
water evaporates out of the leaves more readily at higher temperatures
31
humidity
| in relation to transpiration
when the air around the leaf is drier, there is greater movement of water vapor out of the leaf than if the air around the leaf is saturated with water
32
wind
| in relation to transpiration
a breeze will clear water vapor away from the surface of the leaf leaving the humidity on the leaf surface low and encouraging evaporation
33
turgor
water pressure inside cells
34
temperature (in relation to transpiration)
will shorten answer later...
the water that is transpired must come from somewhere, and that somewhere is the soil. When the roots can't absorb enough water to keep up with the evapotranspiration demand the leaves lose more water than they can replace. Water pressure inside the cells, called turgor pressure, is reduced because some water is pulled out of the cells to satisfy the demand by evaporation. This loss of turgor pressure relaxes the guard cells causing the closure of the stomata which shuts off a major avenue for gas exchange and the main channel for evaporation. This is a major strategy used by plants for managing stress from insufficient water. If the loss of turgor is severe the plants will temporarily wilt. When the evapotranspiration demand is reduced through a change in environmental conditions, or water supply increases, the cells again fill with water, turgor is reestablished, the stomata reopen and the plant leaves recover from their temporary wilting. You have likely seen this happen when you have forgotten to water a house plant. So long as you water it soon enough, the plant regains turgor and survives neglect.
35
```
plant type
(in relation to transpiration)
```
some plants, particularly succulents, have many different types of adaptations that reduce water loss
36
push explanation
turgor in the root cells during the night or during cloudy days can push water and dissolved materials up into the stem
at most, root pressure can move water upwards only about 60 feet, and this only happens at night and when it is cloudy...and it only happens in some plants
37
guttation
dew-like drops of water that are forced out of leaves
38
pull explanation / the cohesion - adhesion - tension theory
water is a polar molecule with a hydrogen bond
this type of bond is weak compared to bonds where molecules share electrons, but when there are lots of hydrogen bonds holding these water molecules together, collectively this type of bonding can be quite tenacious
39
polar molecule
has positive (+) and negative (-) regions like a magnet
40
hydrogen bond
negative region of one molecule is attracted to the positive region of another
41
when is the cohesion between water molecules stronger?
when it is held in a very small tube (i.e.: xylem vessel, root-stem-leaf transit)
cohesion
42
adhesion
| in relation to water
water is also attracted to the walls of small tubes like xylem vessels
this force of adhesion between water and xylem walls helps hold the water in the xylem against the downward force of gravity
43
what happens when a water molecule move through a plant
voids are created in the xylem
that vacuum is filled by the next water molecule in line
44
what else does transpiration do?
// provides water for photosynthesis (although not that much is needed - only about 1-2% of what is transpired)
// moves minerals up from the roots for use in the leaf
// cools the plant through evaporation
45
angiosperm flower is composed of...
a stem with four nodes and three internodes
*telescope/antenna reference*
46
true or false: an angiosperm is a reproductive organ
true
47
draw and name the flower parts
| (link on bac
http://science.jburroughs.org./resources/flower/flowertut.html
48
what is a flower?
a shortened branch containing a stem with four very compact nodes
49
receptacle
short chunk of stem
50
calyx
fourth node, at the base of the receptacle
51
corolla
third node
52
androecium
second node
53
gynoecium
first node, at the tip of the receptacle
54
whorls
nodes where the modified leaves are attached
55
monocots have _ modified leaves attached at each node
3
56
dicots have _ modified leaves attached at each node
4 or 5
57
strawberry fun facts
the enlarged gynoecium node of the receptacle that is covered by carpels
the receptacle will become the red culinary "fruit" while the actual botanical fruits will be the achenes imbedded into the outer surface of the receptacle
58
calyx
made up of modified leaves called sepals
in some species the sepals are green and photosynthetic while in other species, like lily, they are showy and almost indistinguishable from petals
59
tepals
indistinguishable calyx
60
saffron fun fact
saffron is a geophyte that grows from a corm
61
geophytes
plants that develop underground organs that allow the plant to survive during periods of hostile environmental conditions
62
corolla
composed of highly modified leaves called petals
63
what do the bright colors and showy patterns on a petal do?
attract pollinators
64
are all flowers extremely fragrant?
just some
65
where do petals sometimes exude nectar?
near their site of attachment to the receptacle
this is to reward insects who visit the flowers and when doing so, spread pollen from flower to flower
66
what creates the bullseye / landing strip?
color patterns on the petals that provide insects with a visual guide that points to the location of the nectar
67
calyx + corolla = ________
perianth
if a flower is missing the perianth it is incomplete
68
androecium is composed of...
modified leaves called stamens
69
stamen component that starts with an 'f'
filament
| a long stalk
70
filament
// lifts anther to a position to effectively release pollen grains into/onto the pollinator
// connects anther to vascular system
71
stamen component that starts with an 'a'
anther
| usually four sacs containing pollen grains
72
stamen
inside the pollen sacs are microsporangia and microspore mother cells where a special type of cell division called meiosis takes place (to be covered later). Meiosis here leads to formation of the male gametes (sperm) that will be contained in the pollen
73
gynoecium is composed of...
carpels
74
what is it called when several carpels are fused together?
compound carpel
| also called a pistil
75
berberis
oregon grape
76
locule
inner chamber
77
three carpel componets
// inside the ovary is a chamber called a locule
//inside the locule are one or more ovules
//ovules contain an embryo sac - the megasporangia and megaspore mother cells
//meiosis of megaspore mother cells in the embryo sac leads to the formation of the female gametes (eggs)
78
epigynous flowers...
have the other flower parts attached ABOVE the ovary
"inferior ovary" because the gynoecium node isn't positioned right at the tip of the receptacle and ovary is instead surrounded by other tissues, primarily receptacle impacting whether accessory plant tissues that are part of the fruit
79
perigynous flowers have...
an ovary that is surrounded by the fused bases of flower parts (calyx,corolla, androecium) that surrounds the ovary
80
hypogynous flowers have...
the other flower parts attached BELOW the ovary
| this is called a superior ovary because the ovary sits above the point of attachment of the top whorl
81
perfect / bisexual
a flower with both androecium and gynoecium/both male and female parts
may be capable of self-pollination
82
perfect self-pollination could happen by...
pollen produced within the flower falling on a stigma in the same flower and the sperm that it carries may fertilize the egg in the ovule
sometimes, the timing of events during the stages of flower maturation encourage self-pollination
83
cleistogamy
when the anther matures and pollen is shed, and the stigma is receptive, BEFORE the flower even opens
84
protandry
pollen is shed before the stigma is receptive
85
protogyny
stigma is receptive prior to pollen shed
86
self-incompatibility
genetic mechanisms through which the stigma and style recognize pollen produced by the same plant and thwart the germination or pollen tube growth of these pollen, thereby avoiding self pollination
87
is it possible to have imperfect male and imperfect female flowers on the same plant?
yes
88
staminate
flowers containing only androecium
| male
89
pistillate
flowers while the flowers with only gynoecium
| female
90
imperfect example
squash
corn
cucumber
91
ultimate in avoidance of self pollination
in that case, some plants have only staminate or only pistillate flowers
92
dioecious
a single-sex plant
93
monoecious
plants with both sexes, whether perfect or imperfect flowers
94
examples of dioecious crop plants
hops
asparagus
hemp
95
true or false:
| staminate plants divert all of their stored energy to their rhizomes
true
results in greater spear production the next spring
96
microgametophyte
the pollen, or more specifically, the two cells inside the pollen
97
megagametophyte
female gametophyte made up of eight cells
98
germination results in...
1.
2.
1. the activation of metabolic pathways in the seed
| 2. the resumption of embryo growth through cell division
99
```
external factors required for germination are...
1.
2.
3.
4.
```
1. water
2. oxygen
3. warmth
4. light (for some, typically small or fine seeds (ie.: lettuce))
100
a seed is a living plant in a __________ state
quiescent
101
which cell develops into the embryo?
zygote
102
how does the zygote develop into the embryo?
by repeatedly diving
103
egg + sperm = _________
zygote
104
which parts of the plant develop into a protective covering?
seed coat or pericarp (or both)
105
the embryo differentiates into ______ and ________
plumule and radicle
106
where are nutrients stored?
cotyledon or endosperm
107
what happens right before the nascent plant contained within the seed becomes independent of the mother plant?
the embryo's metabolism slows down to nearly zero and the maternal plant stops pumping energy into the seed
108
what happens right after the nascent plant contained within the seed becomes independent of the plant?
the seed, which is the next generation of plant, enters suspended animation
it is alive, but quiescent
109
a seed contains ...
| 3 things
an embryo, which is the nascent plant
a nutrient source (typically endosperm and/or cotyledon)
a protective covering (typically seed coat and/or pericarp)
110
seeds allow plants to...
| 4 things
propagate
generate genetically variable offspring that can be sorted through natural selection
survive harsh conditions
disperse
111
genetically variable offspring
results from cross pollination such as genetic variability, and that variability might be expressed when we grow the plants as differences in vigor, height, flower color, leaf shape, fruit size or other morphological or physiological characteristics
112
survive
due to their protective coating and quiescent metabolism, seeds can survive through conditions that will kill the parent plant such as freezing cold, protracted drought and even fire
once conditions are again favorable for plant growth, the seeds can germinate
113
disperse
seeds disperse from the maternal parent plant "in time" and "in space"
114
"in space"
seeds disperse from the maternal parent plant "in space" through all kinds of wonderful and creative mechanisms for hitching rides on the wind, on animals, and sometimes IN animals as they are eaten, pass through the gut and are excreted along a fence line somewhere down the road
115
"in time"
some seeds have dormancy mechanisms that delay germination until the next favorable growing season which might be a year from now, or even several years from now
116
why do new weeds sprout in your garden each year?
dormant seeds resting in the soil
117
germination
germination is the reactivation of the seed's metabolism and the restoration of embryo growth
118
what are two reasons seeds DO NOT germinate?
1. they could could still be quiescent because favorable external conditions do not yet exist
in particular, the environment could be too dry, too cool or the oxygen levels could be too low to support embryo growth
2. they could be dormant, which is that characteristic that allows seeds to disperse in time
119
water
| as an external condition
moist, but not soaking, conditions allow the seed to "drink" water
120
true or false:
| seeds are typically not very dry
false
121
purpose of water
| as external condition
water moves through the pericarp and seedcoat into the seeds' cells and reactivates the metabolic processes in the seed
the seed's nutritive reserves are broken down and made available to the embryo and the embryo cells divide, enlarge and differentiate
122
respiration
breakdown of nutrient reserves to form energy for plant growth
123
true or false:
| seeds require oxygen to respire
true
124
is it possible to over water a seed?
yes
125
what happens if you overwater a seed?
the water will keep oxygen from reaching the seeds, and although the seeds will imbibe water and swell as if everything is going well, they will not germinate, and will likely rot because there is not enough oxygen available to sustain respiration
another problem with waterlogged soil is that it encourages growth of bacterial and fungal organisms that can parasitize (infect) and decompose the seed
126
true or false:
| warmth and species have nothing to do with each other
false
127
purpose of warmth
| as external condition
molecules move around faster when they are warmer, and this movement encourages the chemical reactions required for respiration
if the seeds are cold and the molecules aren't moving around, the seeds won't germinate
128
light
| as external condition
required for seed germination, the species is said to be positively photoblastic
this characteristic allows the seed to remain dormant when buried deep underground, but germinate when brought to the surface
129
______ is made up of a chain of glucose subunits
starch
130
glucose
simple sugar that is made up of 6 carbon atoms, 6 oxygen atoms and 12 hydrogen atoms
131
shorthand formula for glucose
the shorthand formula for glucose is C6 H12 O6
| for start add brackets and a sub 'n'
132
enzymes are secreted by the...
cotyledon
| depending on the species also by other specialized cells surrounding the cotyledon and endosperm
133
why is it important that the starch be broken down to glucose?
because glucose is a sugar that is small enough to pass through the semipermiable cell membrane
starch is way too big to pass through
134
once in the cell cytoplasm the glucose is broken in half by a process called _______
glycolysis
135
what does glycolysis form?
a 3-carbon compound known as pyruvate
136
mitochondria are the...
powerhouse organelles in the cell
137
_______ first reacts with a carrier molecule and then moves into the __________ where it is further broken down to eventually yield those high energy molecules of ATP
pyruvate, mitochondria
138
true or false:
| the processes in the mitochondria require the presence of oxygen
true
139
seeds also store ______ and ______ in the cotyledons
lipids and protein
140
how can you restrict germination?
by limiting one or more of the following conditions
| oxygen
moisture
warmth
light
141
why would you want to restrict germination?
to store and save seeds for longer periods of time
or dormancy
142
where is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault located?
norway
143
dormancy
when the seeds do not germinate, even though conditions for germination are favorable
144
barriers in the protective covering
impermeability of seedcoat or pericarp to water or oxygen
compounds that act as germination inhibitors that are imbedded within the seed coat
145
barriers in the embryo
physiological immaturity of embryo
the embryo is initially immature and requires a period of cool temperatures or alternating warm and cool temperatures to fully mature (a process that is called after-ripening)
146
barriers in the embryo
physiological requirements
such as dehydration or exposure to light have not yet taken place, and must take place prior to germination
147
barriers in the embryo
deep dormancy in temperate plants
biochemical changes in the seed must take place before germination and these changes require a period of time where the seed is kept at winter (very low) temperatures
148
true or false:
dormancy is a poor strategy for enhancing a plant's survival potential because germination is delayed until a later time when environmental conditions are more favorable
false
dormancy is a GREAT strategy for said goal
149
for horticulturists who prefers that a seed germinate as quickly as possible after being planted, dormancy is preferred
false
dormancy is then considered a bit of a nuisance
150
management of water, oxygen and heat are key in the process of malting ______, and _______ malt is one of the key ingredients used in producing the sugary wort which is boiled with hops and then fermented by yeast to produce beer
barley, barley
151
barley malt is...
| 3 things
partially germinated
dried
lightly roasted barley seeds
152
barley is the preferred cereal grain for malting for two main reasons...
1.
2.
1. physical
seed has extra layer of protection outside of the pericarp provided by bracts
2. biochemical
153
physical
| seed has extra layer of protection outside of the pericarp provided by bracts called _______ and _______
lemma and palea
154
threshing
the process of separating the cereal seed from the rest of the plant
155
draw and label young barely flower
https://ay14.moodle.umn.edu/pluginfile.php/754423/mod_resource/content/1/Lecture%2013%20F2014%20Seed%20Physiology%20upload.html
156
upon germination, the shoot and root...
emerge from the pericarp, but are still protected by the tight-fitting lemma and palea
this protection allows the seeds to be physically manipulated during germination without cracking off the root or shoot and killing the seed before it has reached the stage for producing malt
157
germinating seed must be handled much more gingerly during malting because...
when the root emerges from the pericarp it is not protected during germination
158
barley is the grain of choice from the biochemical standpoint because...
it has high starch content in its endosperm and an aleurone layer that overproduces the enzymes required to convert that starch to simple, fermentable sugars
159
adjuncts
substitute UNMALTED GRAINS for barley malt other, less expensive, unmalted grains like corn or rice to their mash to increase the starch content
160
true or false:
| barley malt is a living seed
false
if you plant barley malt it will rot in the soil
drying and roasting kills the embryo
161
two biochemical packages in barley malt
starch located in the endosperm and
enzymes (alpha- and beta- amylase) needed to convert that starch to sugar located in the aleurone which is a layer of cells in a tissue that surrounds the endosperm
162
the malting process involves...
| 3 things
- activating the barley seed's metabolic pathways during the Steeping phase ("A" as shown on the cartoon on the left)
- providing the right environmental conditions for resumption of strong embryo growth during the Germinating phase ("B")
- prematurely interrupting embryo growth by drying and lightly roasting the partially germinated seeds during the Drying phase ("C")
163
steeping
seeds are dumped into big tanks and submerged in cool, 50-55 degree Fahrenheit water
seeds are not left to soak for long
164
what does the water temperature matter for steeping?
the water isn't so warm that it encourages rapid growth, but just warm enough to initiate cell division
165
rousing
oxygen being bubbled into the water
166
what does rousing do?
by changing the water and aerating, CO2 (a waste product of seed metabolism) is removed
if CO2 were left to accumulate it could inhibit respiration
167
which temperature of water holds more oxygen?
cooler steep water holds more oxygen and supports less microbial contamination than warmer steep water
168
how long are seeds left to steep?
the seeds are left in the steep tank until the water content of the grain reaches 42 to 48%, which can take 24-48 hours
169
how do you know germination is occurring?
the first visible sign of germination is the appearance of a white "chit" or sharp point of the radicle that is barely penetrating the husk where the rootlets (fine lateral roots) will emerge
170
what percentage of moisture must the grain reach before it is transferred to germination beds?
45-48%
171
germinating process
the bed has a perforated floor that allows aeration of the grain
air movement through the grain is used to supply oxygen, remove carbon dioxide, and maintain a temperature warmer than the steeping water of about 60-70 degrees Fahrenheit
large augers move through the bed and invert the germinating grain
172
the mixing action of the augers breaks up the clumps of rootlets that would otherwise make the germinating grain into...
a big mat, and also helps aerate and stabilize temperature of the grain bed
173
scutellum
the name given to the barley seed's cotyledon
174
during this germination phase, enzymes from the _______ and the ______ are secreted into the endosperm where they break down the cell walls and release the starch granules
scutellum and the aleurone
175
just at the point of germination (at the stage called "green malt") when the the amylase enzymes are about to start breaking down the starch to sugar...
the whole germination process is stopped dead in its tracks by drying and roasting the green malt
176
drying or kilning
during this stage the green malt is dried from about 48% moisture to 23% moisture using air at a temperature of about 120-140
177
totaal time drying/kilning
24-36 hours
178
there are at least _ different types of barley grown on farms
2
179
different types of barley grown
feed
| malting
180
feed barley
little higher protein content, perhaps smaller seed and higher yields than malting barely
used to feed horses, hogs, poultry, beef, and dairy cattle as a source of carbs and a bit of protein
less expensive
181
malting barley
lower protein (it can cause a haze in beer) and higher enzyme levels for converting startch to sugar and plumper seeds than feed
bright yellow/tan with no gray discoloration
182
where is malting barely best grown?
dry climates like Colorado, Idaho, Alberta where there is little rainfall and humidity during harvest to discolor the seeds
183
malting quality barley is stored at least __ - __weeks after harvest so that the seed can after-ripen and overcome the this temporary dormanc
4-6
184
aleurone
a layer of cells surrounding the endosperm, but underneath the pericarp, that is high in the enzymes used to break down the endosperm
185
husk
actually the pericarp on the inside plus two bracts, called the lemma and palea, completely surrounding and protecting the seed
186
three basic parts of carpel
stigma at the tip to
which pollen grains stick
style which is the channel of tissue through
which the pollen tube grows
the
ovary at the base that houses the
ovules that contain the plant's eggs
187
in a botanical sense, a fruit is...
the ripened ovary together with the seeds within the ovary
188
In the flower the ovary wall provides protection to the ______, but after fertilization of the eggs with the sperm from the pollen, the seeds mature within the ovary and the ovary itself transforms
ovules
189
The ripened ovary wall...
pericap
190
"peri" meaning...
around the carpel
191
is a bean pod a botanical fruit?
yes
192
exocarp
outer layer of the pericap (also called epicarp)
193
mesocarp
middle layer
194
endocarp
inner layer
195
can the exocarp be different across species? how?
yes, it can be tender, leathery, or hard
could have olive glands or kiwi hair, etc.
196
pepo
fruits with rinds (i.e. cucumber, squash, etc.)
197
what is a coconut?
a seed
198
what are nuts?
a botanical name for a particular type of fruit
199
simple fruit
fruit formed from a flower with one carpel, or multiple carpels fused together so that it looks like just one carpel
the ovary wall surrounding the carpel(s) ripens into an independent fruit
200
aggregate fruit
the fruit is formed from the ripened ovaries present in one flower with numerous simple carpels
ripened ovaries form that one flower coalesce into one larger unit but you can still see evidence of individual carpels
as pericarps mature the fuse together to form a thimble of the raspberry that we eat
(i.e. raspberries)
201
multiple fruit
develops from a cluster of flowers that are in close proximity in an inflorescence
ripened ovaries from the multiple flowers coalesce into one unit
(i.e. pineapple)
202
how do you distinguish between aggregate fruit and multiple fruit?
the number of flowers involved in the fruit
an aggregate fruit is from one flower with many ovaries, and the multiple fruit is made up of multiple flowers
203
true or false: fruit can be categorized as fleshy or dry
true
204
if dry and the seeds separate from the pericarp the fruit is called...
dehiscent
205
if fleshy and the seed is retained within the pericarp it is called
indehiscent
206
DRUPE
A stone fruit, derived from a single carpel and containing (usually) one seed. The exocarp is a thin skin, the mesocarp may be fleshy and the endocarp is hard (ie "stony").
peach
207
BERRY
A simple fruit from a flower with a superior ovary with a fleshy pericarp and many seeds. A tomato is a berry, a grape is a berry, but a raspberry is not. (remember that a raspberry is an aggregate fruit, not a simple fruit and true berries are simple fruits).
tomato
208
HESPERIDIUM
Like a berry, but with numerous fused carpels instead of just one. Each of the sections of the hesperidium represents one carpel. The carpels are packed with fluid-filled vesicles that are actually specialized trichomes. The carpels are surrounded by a tough, leathery exocarp. The exocarp contains volatile oil glands in pits. The orange on the right is an example of a herperidium.
orange
209
LEGUME
Dry fruit made up of a single, folded carpel, multi-seeded, dehiscent along two sutures. It is easy to see the funiculus in peas...when you open up the pod to shell out the peas there is a small stalk attaching the pea seed to the pod...that's the funiculus.
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CAPSULE
A dry, dehiscent fruit made up of several fused carpels. The images to the right show the exterior of the poppy capsule and a cross section of the capsule showing the locules with seeds inside. The capsule may split open in several ways depending on the species, including along the septa where the carpels connect, midway between the septa, or a cap may pop off as in poppy.
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CARYOPSIS
A fruit from one carpel containing a single seed. The pericarp is fused to the seed. A corn kernel is a caryposis. The outside of the corn kernel is the pericarp.
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ACHENE
Like the caryopsis (one seed per fruit) but the seed can be threshed so that the seed is free of the pericarp. You can buy sunflower seeds "in the shell". The "shell" is the pericarp. You've also heard of achenes earlier when I described the actual fruits on a strawberry and the fruits inside the rose hip.
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NUT
A dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded fruit with a hard exocarp. The ovaries that produce nuts have more than one carpel, but through abortion, only one seed matures. The acorn shown has the pericarp partially encased in a tough covering called the involucre. True nuts will always have a hard exocarp and just one seed while this is not always the case with culinary nuts. Peanuts, for instance, have a hard exocarp but multiple seeds. Horse Chestnuts have a leathery exocarp and it is the endocarp that is hard. True nuts have a hard exocarp.
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accessory tissues sometimes adhere to the fruit, as with the ...
pepo
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In some species parts of the flower other than the carpel (including the petals, sepals, and stamens), fuse to form a structure called the _________
hypanthium
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true or false: The hypanthium is the same as the receptacle
false
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hypanthium
a tissue formed from the fused bases of flower parts, and the hypanthium itself is attached to the receptacle
The point is that the hypanthium is another one of these accessory tissues that becomes involved with the fruit.
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Since the part we eat isn't the ripened ovary wall, the apple is called an _______ ______
accessory fruit
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POME
an accessory fruit where the ovary wall forms the core in the center of the apple and the fleshy part that we eat is receptacle and hypanthium tissue. As noted earlier, the hypanthium tissue is composed of the swollen, fused bases of the petals, sepals (the perianth) and stamens.
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PEPO
The pepo is another example of a simple accessory fruit. Squash, for example, has a flower with an inferior ovary (sometimes called an epigynous berry) where the ovary wall is fused to receptacle tissue. This fused ovary/receptacle tissue forms a leathery or hard rind (the exocarp). The fleshy interior that we eat is the mesocarp. The goop (there's a scientific term for you) we scrape out with the seeds is the endocarp.
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what is a strawberry?
swollen receptacle of the former flower and the botanical fruits are the brown specks sticking to the outside of the receptacle
accessory fruit
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What is sexual reproduction?
Reproduction through seeds or spores. Result of fusion of sperm and egg, also has potential for progeny to differ from parents.
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What is asexual/ vegetative reproduction?
Reproduction through manipulation of various plant parts, including cuttings from leaves, roots and stems or grafting.
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Phenotype
the way the plant looks and performs in a particular environment (two identical genotypes may still have diff. phenotypes if grown in contrasting environments)
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Genotype
the collection of genes the plant contains (veg. reproduction results in identical genotypes)
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What is apomixis?
Technically a form or asexual reproduction but disguised as sexual reproduction. In rare cases, an embryo can develop solely from maternal tissue and no fusion of egg and sperm. Ex. Kentucky Bluegrass and Dandelion
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3 Main Purposes of Seeds
1. Propagation of the plant- accomplished by embryo
2. Nutrient Storage- fuels growth of the embryo
3. Protection- embryo & nutrient storage need a tough covering for protection from environment and predators (often a seed coat)
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What is the embryo axis (function: prop. by the embryo)?
essentially the embryonic root and shoot
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What is the Plumule (function: prop. by the embryo)?
the first true leaves of the plant that you can see attached to the embryo. these leaves will emerge from the seed, rise above the soil surface and start to collect energy from the sun.
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What is the Point of attachment (function: prop. by the embryo)?
spot on embryo axis where the cotyledon attached. (mid point on the embryo axis)
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What is the epicotyl (function: prop. by the embryo)?
the part of the embryo axis is ABOVE the point of attachment of the cotyledons.
Epigeal seedling emergence cell division in the hypocotyl is initially more active and rapid than cell division in the epicotyl which then pushes the cotyledonary node above the ground.
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What is the Hypocotyl (function: prop. by the embryo)?
the part of the embryo axis that is BELOW the point of attachment of the cotyledons but above the radical.
The apical meristem at the tip of the epicotyl is more active than the hypocotyl which pushed the epicotyl above the soil while the cotyledons and all the hypocotyl remain below the surface. The cotyledonary node is below the ground.
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What is the radicle (function: prop. by the embryo)?
the embryonic root tissue
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What is double fertilization?
when the angiosperm pollen grain actually holds two sperm cells, one fertilizes the egg resulting in an embryo while the other unites with 2 other maternal nuclei that grow to become endosperm tissue.
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What is the endosperm?
major energy and nutrient storage tissue (in a corn)
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What is coleoptile?
a sheath that covers the plumule and epicotyl that provide protection
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In a corn seed, there are 3 functions:
1. propagation
2. protection
3. nutrition
all satisfied by embryo, endosperm tissue, and the pericap
238
Where can energy be stored in flowering plants?
the cotyledon and the endosperm
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What kind of energy is stored in tissue?
Carbs, Protein, Cofactors (vitamins), lipids
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Carbs
made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
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Protein
sources of amino acids from production of enzymes and nitrogen-rich compounds
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Lipids
plant oils in form of triglycerides
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What are Dicots?
seeds with 2 cotyledons (storage function). Legumes aka beans and peas are dicots and store large amounts of protein.
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What are oilseeds?
Ex. soybean and peanut
| Legume with high protein, high lipid and low carbs (oil can be squeezed or extracted).
245
What are Pulse Crops?
Ex. pean and bean
Have high preteen, low lipid, and high carbs.
Edible protein
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What is a monocot?
has a cotyledon but it is mainly used for absorption, storing starches and sugars
247
What are the 2 layers of protection in a seed?
Seed coat (in ovule) and pericarp (in ovary)
248
Parts of a flower in a cross section:
sepals, petals, stamen (filament and anther), and pistil (stigma, style and ovary)
249
What affects the position of the cotyledon?
The cotyledon is affected by the rapidity of cell division in the hypocotyl region of the plant during germination and early seedling growth.
250
What is taxonomy (systematics)?
the science of classifying organisms
251
What is nomenclature?
a formal system of names attached to the taxonomic groupings
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What is plant taxonomy?
a hierarchical classification system on morphological and phylogenetic similarities among plants
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What is hierarchy?
a system of grouping where each classification is a subset of a superior grouping and may contain subordinate categories.
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What is morphology?
the appearance of a plant (its shape and structure)
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What is phylogeny?
the ancestral, evolutionary relationships among plants.
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What is the plant systematics hierarchy?
Kingdom, division, class, order, family, genus, species
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What is in the Kingdom category?
Animalia, Fungi, Plantae, Protozoa, Chromista, Bacteria
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What are some Family categories?
Arecaceae (coconut), Poaceae (corn), Musaceae (banana), Fabaceae (peas)
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Who is Carolus Linnaeus?
Swedish rofessor, developed the binomial nomenclature for plants.
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Traditional taxonomy
relies on morphological phenotype (appearance of a plant)
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Molecular Taxonomy
relies on genotype (particular combination of alleles of each gene in the organism)
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What is the apical meristem?
the site of cell division and new cell production at the tips of the plant stems and roots (undergoing mitotic cell division to produce more cells)
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What is mitosis?
the process of cell division where one plant cell divides into two identical cells
264
What are the initials?
meristem cells that remain meristematic because they continue to initiate new cells
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What are derivative cells?
The other sister cells that divide once or twice more and then differentiate.
266
Primary xylem and Primary phloem
xylem and phloem tissues that result from differentiation of derivative cells, primary signals that the cells originated from cell divisions of the apical meristem
267
Division of apical meristem
- Results in lengthening of the root or shoot in monocots.
| - From a different type of meristem, dicots have results in thickening of the stem
268
What is secondary growth?
Woody plants and shrubs, dicots, have the capacity of secondary growth and can survive year to year. Results from lateral meristem
269
What is a lateral meristem?
lateral meristem- made up of cells that undergo mitotic cell division. Mitosis in lateral meristems result in lateral growth or thickening of the stem/root and adds to the girth rather than length
270
What are the two types of lateral meristems?
- vascular cambium
| - cork cambium
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Vascular Cambium
phloem oriented to the outside, xylem to inside with a thin layer of parenchyma cells between the xylem and phloem is differentiated into fascicular cambium
272
What is fasicicular cambium?
fascicular cambium (bundles) which then produces secondary xylem and phloem
273
What is interfascicular cambium?
cambium between the bundles (later on in growth)
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What is periclinal division?
new cells formed either to outside or inside and the cell wall separates the two new cells is PARALLEL to the outside of the stem. adds girth to plant stem
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What is anticlinal division?
cell division where the cambium cell has divided so that the wall between the two cells is perpendicular to the outside stem.
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What is cork cambium?
- Second type of cork cambium
| - cork provides a protective covering around the expanding trunk of the woody plant.
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What is the phelloderm?
cork cambium lats down new cells toward the inside called phelloderm but lays most new cells to the outside
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What is suberin?
the cork cells are lined with a waxy substance called suberin making cells impermeable to water and gasses
279
What are lenticels?
Breaks in the cork cells that allow for gas and water exchange
280
What is periderm?
Cork cambium and is derivatives
281
What does "bark" consist of?
- primary and secondary phloem
- phelloderm (think layer)
- cork cambium
- cork
282
Where are a tree's annual rings found?
in the secondary phloem
283
What is an annual ring?
the line of demarcation between late summer and spring xylem
284
Roots
roots of woody perennial dicots have vascular and cork cambium
