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Plant Propagation (HORT 1001) > Exam Two (lectures 9-16) > Flashcards

Exam Two (lectures 9-16) Flashcards

1
Q

upper epidermis with cuticle

A

at the very top, cuticle is a protective, waxy coating of cutin on the epidermis cells that restricts water loss

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2
Q

palisade mesophyll

A

densely packed, columnar-shaped, elongated cells full of chlorplasts

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3
Q

chloroplasts

A

structures inside plant cells that contain chlorophyll

the site of light capture during photosynthesis

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4
Q

vascular bundle

A

xylem, phloem, bundle sheath nearby parenchyma

highly adapted for transport of fluids

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5
Q

spongy mesophyll

A

loosely packed cells with large air spaces in between which allow movement and exchange of gases

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6
Q

which gases are related to the spongy mesophyll?

A

oxygen
carbon dioxide
water vapor

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7
Q

do spongy mesophyll cells contain chloroplasts?

A

yes

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8
Q

stomata

A

holes in the leaf surface that allow gas exchange between the atmosphere and internal parts of the leaf

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9
Q

what is the role of the lower epidermis with guard cells?

A

regulators of the size of the stomata

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10
Q

draw and label the anatomy of a leaf

A

follow link to lecture 9 for image:
https://ay14.moodle.umn.edu/pluginfile.php/701329/mod_resource/content/1/Lesson%209%20-%20Inside%20Leaves%20and%20Transpiration%20F14%20upload%20ready.html

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11
Q

why do leaves appear green?

A

chlorophyll absorbs red and blue wavelengths of light to power photosynthesis and reflects green back to our eyes

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12
Q

chromoplasts

NOT chloroplast

A

cellular organelles that contain types and colors of pigments other than chloroplasts

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13
Q

why do leaves change colors?

A

the mesophyll cell chloroplasts produce chlorophyll at a slower rate than earlier in the year because it is nearing its functional lifespan

chlorophyll replacement doesn’t make up for chlorophyll loss so the green color fades out of the leaves

the non-green pigments in the chromoplasts are holding their own or increasing in quantity

yellows, oranges - carotinoid pigments

reds - anthocyanin pigments

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14
Q

how long are carotinoid pigments present in leaves?

A

all growing season

during the warm part of the season these colors are hidden by high concentrations of chlorophyll

orange and yellow colors can be counted on every year

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15
Q

when fall/autumn rolls around, why do we see an assortment of reds, oranges, yellows, and greens in leaves?

A

the carotinoids don’t degenerate as quickly as the chlorophyll

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16
Q

can the amount of anthocyanins be counted on each year? why or why not?

A

no

anthocyanins are produced primarily in the autumn in response to bright light and excess plant sugars in leaf cells

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17
Q

warm/bright days + cool nights = [insert color of leaves]

A

red

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18
Q

Is the effect of weather on anthocyanin noticeable for trees like sugar maples?

A

yes, you can see combinations of color where the sun hits

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19
Q

Is the effect of weather on anthocyanin noticeable in woody plans like sumac?

A

no, seem to be bright red in late september/early october regardless of weather

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20
Q

Is the effect of weather on anthocyanin noticeable for trees like birch and oak?

A

no, they will be yellow or tan even with warm bright days and cool nights

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21
Q

true or false:

the palisade mesophyll is not adapted for capturing light energy

A

false, it is highly adapted

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22
Q

what is the relationship of oxygen to plants?

A

it is considered a waste product

this is why during photosynthesis healthy plants must be able to move oxygen OUT of the leaves and carbon dioxide INTO the leaves

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23
Q

process of water molecules as they move through a plant

A

taken up by roots

move up the stem

into the leaves

out the stomata in the
leaves

evaporate into the atmosphere

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24
Q

oxygen escapes through the…

A

stomata

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25
Q

when the stomata is open…

A

water vapor exists

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26
Q

evaspotranspiration (often just transpiration)

A

the movement of water in the plant from root to stem to leave and out through the stomata to the atmosphere

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27
Q

how man gallons of water will an acre of corn transpire in one day?

A

3,000-4,000

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28
Q

how many gallons of water will a large oak tree transpire in a year?

A

40,000

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29
Q

light

in relation to transpiration

A

plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark - the stomata are stimulated to be open in the light of the day

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30
Q

temperature

in relation to transpiration

A

water evaporates out of the leaves more readily at higher temperatures

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31
Q

humidity

in relation to transpiration

A

when the air around the leaf is drier, there is greater movement of water vapor out of the leaf than if the air around the leaf is saturated with water

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32
Q

wind

in relation to transpiration

A

a breeze will clear water vapor away from the surface of the leaf leaving the humidity on the leaf surface low and encouraging evaporation

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33
Q

turgor

A

water pressure inside cells

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34
Q

temperature (in relation to transpiration)

A

will shorten answer later…

the water that is transpired must come from somewhere, and that somewhere is the soil. When the roots can’t absorb enough water to keep up with the evapotranspiration demand the leaves lose more water than they can replace. Water pressure inside the cells, called turgor pressure, is reduced because some water is pulled out of the cells to satisfy the demand by evaporation. This loss of turgor pressure relaxes the guard cells causing the closure of the stomata which shuts off a major avenue for gas exchange and the main channel for evaporation. This is a major strategy used by plants for managing stress from insufficient water. If the loss of turgor is severe the plants will temporarily wilt. When the evapotranspiration demand is reduced through a change in environmental conditions, or water supply increases, the cells again fill with water, turgor is reestablished, the stomata reopen and the plant leaves recover from their temporary wilting. You have likely seen this happen when you have forgotten to water a house plant. So long as you water it soon enough, the plant regains turgor and survives neglect.

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35
Q 
plant type
 (in relation to transpiration)
A

some plants, particularly succulents, have many different types of adaptations that reduce water loss

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36
Q

push explanation

A

turgor in the root cells during the night or during cloudy days can push water and dissolved materials up into the stem

at most, root pressure can move water upwards only about 60 feet, and this only happens at night and when it is cloudy…and it only happens in some plants

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37
Q

guttation

A

dew-like drops of water that are forced out of leaves

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38
Q

pull explanation / the cohesion - adhesion - tension theory

A

water is a polar molecule with a hydrogen bond

this type of bond is weak compared to bonds where molecules share electrons, but when there are lots of hydrogen bonds holding these water molecules together, collectively this type of bonding can be quite tenacious

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39
Q

polar molecule

A

has positive (+) and negative (-) regions like a magnet

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40
Q

hydrogen bond

A

negative region of one molecule is attracted to the positive region of another

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41
Q

when is the cohesion between water molecules stronger?

A

when it is held in a very small tube (i.e.: xylem vessel, root-stem-leaf transit)

cohesion

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42
Q

adhesion

in relation to water

A

water is also attracted to the walls of small tubes like xylem vessels

this force of adhesion between water and xylem walls helps hold the water in the xylem against the downward force of gravity

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43
Q

what happens when a water molecule move through a plant

A

voids are created in the xylem

that vacuum is filled by the next water molecule in line

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44
Q

what else does transpiration do?

A

// provides water for photosynthesis (although not that much is needed - only about 1-2% of what is transpired)

// moves minerals up from the roots for use in the leaf

// cools the plant through evaporation

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45
Q

angiosperm flower is composed of…

A

a stem with four nodes and three internodes

telescope/antenna reference

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46
Q

true or false: an angiosperm is a reproductive organ

A

true

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47
Q

draw and name the flower parts

(link on bac

A

http://science.jburroughs.org./resources/flower/flowertut.html

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48
Q

what is a flower?

A

a shortened branch containing a stem with four very compact nodes

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49
Q

receptacle

A

short chunk of stem

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50
Q

calyx

A

fourth node, at the base of the receptacle

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51
Q

corolla

A

third node

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52
Q

androecium

A

second node

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53
Q

gynoecium

A

first node, at the tip of the receptacle

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54
Q

whorls

A

nodes where the modified leaves are attached

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55
Q

monocots have _ modified leaves attached at each node

A

3

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56
Q

dicots have _ modified leaves attached at each node

A

4 or 5

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57
Q

strawberry fun facts

A

the enlarged gynoecium node of the receptacle that is covered by carpels

the receptacle will become the red culinary “fruit” while the actual botanical fruits will be the achenes imbedded into the outer surface of the receptacle

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58
Q

calyx

A

made up of modified leaves called sepals

in some species the sepals are green and photosynthetic while in other species, like lily, they are showy and almost indistinguishable from petals

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59
Q

tepals

A

indistinguishable calyx

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60
Q

saffron fun fact

A

saffron is a geophyte that grows from a corm

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61
Q

geophytes

A

plants that develop underground organs that allow the plant to survive during periods of hostile environmental conditions

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62
Q

corolla

A

composed of highly modified leaves called petals

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63
Q

what do the bright colors and showy patterns on a petal do?

A

attract pollinators

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64
Q

are all flowers extremely fragrant?

A

just some

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65
Q

where do petals sometimes exude nectar?

A

near their site of attachment to the receptacle

this is to reward insects who visit the flowers and when doing so, spread pollen from flower to flower

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66
Q

what creates the bullseye / landing strip?

A

color patterns on the petals that provide insects with a visual guide that points to the location of the nectar

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67
Q

calyx + corolla = ________

A

perianth

if a flower is missing the perianth it is incomplete

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68
Q

androecium is composed of…

A

modified leaves called stamens

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69
Q

stamen component that starts with an ‘f’

A

filament

a long stalk

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70
Q

filament

A

// lifts anther to a position to effectively release pollen grains into/onto the pollinator

// connects anther to vascular system

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71
Q

stamen component that starts with an ‘a’

A

anther

usually four sacs containing pollen grains

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72
Q

stamen

A

inside the pollen sacs are microsporangia and microspore mother cells where a special type of cell division called meiosis takes place (to be covered later). Meiosis here leads to formation of the male gametes (sperm) that will be contained in the pollen

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73
Q

gynoecium is composed of…

A

carpels

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74
Q

what is it called when several carpels are fused together?

A

compound carpel

also called a pistil

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75
Q

berberis

A

oregon grape

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76
Q

locule

A

inner chamber

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77
Q

three carpel componets

A

// inside the ovary is a chamber called a locule

//inside the locule are one or more ovules

//ovules contain an embryo sac - the megasporangia and megaspore mother cells

//meiosis of megaspore mother cells in the embryo sac leads to the formation of the female gametes (eggs)

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78
Q

epigynous flowers…

A

have the other flower parts attached ABOVE the ovary

“inferior ovary” because the gynoecium node isn’t positioned right at the tip of the receptacle and ovary is instead surrounded by other tissues, primarily receptacle impacting whether accessory plant tissues that are part of the fruit

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79
Q

perigynous flowers have…

A

an ovary that is surrounded by the fused bases of flower parts (calyx,corolla, androecium) that surrounds the ovary

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80
Q

hypogynous flowers have…

A

the other flower parts attached BELOW the ovary

this is called a superior ovary because the ovary sits above the point of attachment of the top whorl

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81
Q

perfect / bisexual

A

a flower with both androecium and gynoecium/both male and female parts

may be capable of self-pollination

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82
Q

perfect self-pollination could happen by…

A

pollen produced within the flower falling on a stigma in the same flower and the sperm that it carries may fertilize the egg in the ovule

sometimes, the timing of events during the stages of flower maturation encourage self-pollination

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83
Q

cleistogamy

A

when the anther matures and pollen is shed, and the stigma is receptive, BEFORE the flower even opens

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84
Q

protandry

A

pollen is shed before the stigma is receptive

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85
Q

protogyny

A

stigma is receptive prior to pollen shed

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86
Q

self-incompatibility

A

genetic mechanisms through which the stigma and style recognize pollen produced by the same plant and thwart the germination or pollen tube growth of these pollen, thereby avoiding self pollination

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87
Q

is it possible to have imperfect male and imperfect female flowers on the same plant?

A

yes

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88
Q

staminate

A

flowers containing only androecium

male

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89
Q

pistillate

A

flowers while the flowers with only gynoecium

female

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90
Q

imperfect example

A

squash
corn
cucumber

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91
Q

ultimate in avoidance of self pollination

A

in that case, some plants have only staminate or only pistillate flowers

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92
Q

dioecious

A

a single-sex plant

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93
Q

monoecious

A

plants with both sexes, whether perfect or imperfect flowers

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94
Q

examples of dioecious crop plants

A

hops
asparagus
hemp

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95
Q

true or false:

staminate plants divert all of their stored energy to their rhizomes

A

true

results in greater spear production the next spring

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96
Q

microgametophyte

A

the pollen, or more specifically, the two cells inside the pollen

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97
Q

megagametophyte

A

female gametophyte made up of eight cells

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98
Q

germination results in…
1.
2.

A
  1. the activation of metabolic pathways in the seed

2. the resumption of embryo growth through cell division

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99
Q 
external factors required for germination are...
1.
2.
3.
4.
A
  1. water
  2. oxygen
  3. warmth
  4. light (for some, typically small or fine seeds (ie.: lettuce))
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100
Q

a seed is a living plant in a __________ state

A

quiescent

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101
Q

which cell develops into the embryo?

A

zygote

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102
Q

how does the zygote develop into the embryo?

A

by repeatedly diving

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103
Q

egg + sperm = _________

A

zygote

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104
Q

which parts of the plant develop into a protective covering?

A

seed coat or pericarp (or both)

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105
Q

the embryo differentiates into ______ and ________

A

plumule and radicle

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106
Q

where are nutrients stored?

A

cotyledon or endosperm

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107
Q

what happens right before the nascent plant contained within the seed becomes independent of the mother plant?

A

the embryo’s metabolism slows down to nearly zero and the maternal plant stops pumping energy into the seed

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108
Q

what happens right after the nascent plant contained within the seed becomes independent of the plant?

A

the seed, which is the next generation of plant, enters suspended animation

it is alive, but quiescent

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109
Q

a seed contains …

3 things

A

an embryo, which is the nascent plant

a nutrient source (typically endosperm and/or cotyledon)

a protective covering (typically seed coat and/or pericarp)

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110
Q

seeds allow plants to…

4 things

A

propagate

generate genetically variable offspring that can be sorted through natural selection

survive harsh conditions

disperse

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111
Q

genetically variable offspring

A

results from cross pollination such as genetic variability, and that variability might be expressed when we grow the plants as differences in vigor, height, flower color, leaf shape, fruit size or other morphological or physiological characteristics

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112
Q

survive

A

due to their protective coating and quiescent metabolism, seeds can survive through conditions that will kill the parent plant such as freezing cold, protracted drought and even fire

once conditions are again favorable for plant growth, the seeds can germinate

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113
Q

disperse

A

seeds disperse from the maternal parent plant “in time” and “in space”

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114
Q

“in space”

A

seeds disperse from the maternal parent plant “in space” through all kinds of wonderful and creative mechanisms for hitching rides on the wind, on animals, and sometimes IN animals as they are eaten, pass through the gut and are excreted along a fence line somewhere down the road

115
Q

“in time”

A

some seeds have dormancy mechanisms that delay germination until the next favorable growing season which might be a year from now, or even several years from now

116
Q

why do new weeds sprout in your garden each year?

A

dormant seeds resting in the soil

117
Q

germination

A

germination is the reactivation of the seed’s metabolism and the restoration of embryo growth

118
Q

what are two reasons seeds DO NOT germinate?

A
  1. they could could still be quiescent because favorable external conditions do not yet exist

in particular, the environment could be too dry, too cool or the oxygen levels could be too low to support embryo growth

  1. they could be dormant, which is that characteristic that allows seeds to disperse in time
119
Q

water

as an external condition

A

moist, but not soaking, conditions allow the seed to “drink” water

120
Q

true or false:

seeds are typically not very dry

A

false

121
Q

purpose of water

as external condition

A

water moves through the pericarp and seedcoat into the seeds’ cells and reactivates the metabolic processes in the seed

the seed’s nutritive reserves are broken down and made available to the embryo and the embryo cells divide, enlarge and differentiate

122
Q

respiration

A

breakdown of nutrient reserves to form energy for plant growth

123
Q

true or false:

seeds require oxygen to respire

A

true

124
Q

is it possible to over water a seed?

A

yes

125
Q

what happens if you overwater a seed?

A

the water will keep oxygen from reaching the seeds, and although the seeds will imbibe water and swell as if everything is going well, they will not germinate, and will likely rot because there is not enough oxygen available to sustain respiration

another problem with waterlogged soil is that it encourages growth of bacterial and fungal organisms that can parasitize (infect) and decompose the seed

126
Q

true or false:

warmth and species have nothing to do with each other

A

false

127
Q

purpose of warmth

as external condition

A

molecules move around faster when they are warmer, and this movement encourages the chemical reactions required for respiration

if the seeds are cold and the molecules aren’t moving around, the seeds won’t germinate

128
Q

light

as external condition

A

required for seed germination, the species is said to be positively photoblastic

this characteristic allows the seed to remain dormant when buried deep underground, but germinate when brought to the surface

129
Q

______ is made up of a chain of glucose subunits

A

starch

130
Q

glucose

A

simple sugar that is made up of 6 carbon atoms, 6 oxygen atoms and 12 hydrogen atoms

131
Q

shorthand formula for glucose

A

the shorthand formula for glucose is C6 H12 O6

for start add brackets and a sub ‘n’

132
Q

enzymes are secreted by the…

A

cotyledon

depending on the species also by other specialized cells surrounding the cotyledon and endosperm

133
Q

why is it important that the starch be broken down to glucose?

A

because glucose is a sugar that is small enough to pass through the semipermiable cell membrane

starch is way too big to pass through

134
Q

once in the cell cytoplasm the glucose is broken in half by a process called _______

A

glycolysis

135
Q

what does glycolysis form?

A

a 3-carbon compound known as pyruvate

136
Q

mitochondria are the…

A

powerhouse organelles in the cell

137
Q

_______ first reacts with a carrier molecule and then moves into the __________ where it is further broken down to eventually yield those high energy molecules of ATP

A

pyruvate, mitochondria

138
Q

true or false:

the processes in the mitochondria require the presence of oxygen

A

true

139
Q

seeds also store ______ and ______ in the cotyledons

A

lipids and protein

140
Q

how can you restrict germination?

A

by limiting one or more of the following conditions

oxygen
moisture
warmth
light

141
Q

why would you want to restrict germination?

A

to store and save seeds for longer periods of time

or dormancy

142
Q

where is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault located?

A

norway

143
Q

dormancy

A

when the seeds do not germinate, even though conditions for germination are favorable

144
Q

barriers in the protective covering

A

impermeability of seedcoat or pericarp to water or oxygen

compounds that act as germination inhibitors that are imbedded within the seed coat

145
Q

barriers in the embryo

physiological immaturity of embryo

A

the embryo is initially immature and requires a period of cool temperatures or alternating warm and cool temperatures to fully mature (a process that is called after-ripening)

146
Q

barriers in the embryo

physiological requirements

A

such as dehydration or exposure to light have not yet taken place, and must take place prior to germination

147
Q

barriers in the embryo

deep dormancy in temperate plants

A

biochemical changes in the seed must take place before germination and these changes require a period of time where the seed is kept at winter (very low) temperatures

148
Q

true or false:
dormancy is a poor strategy for enhancing a plant’s survival potential because germination is delayed until a later time when environmental conditions are more favorable

A

false

dormancy is a GREAT strategy for said goal

149
Q

for horticulturists who prefers that a seed germinate as quickly as possible after being planted, dormancy is preferred

A

false

dormancy is then considered a bit of a nuisance

150
Q

management of water, oxygen and heat are key in the process of malting ______, and _______ malt is one of the key ingredients used in producing the sugary wort which is boiled with hops and then fermented by yeast to produce beer

A

barley, barley

151
Q

barley malt is…

3 things

A

partially germinated
dried
lightly roasted barley seeds

152
Q

barley is the preferred cereal grain for malting for two main reasons…
1.
2.

A
  1. physical
    seed has extra layer of protection outside of the pericarp provided by bracts
  2. biochemical
153
Q

physical

seed has extra layer of protection outside of the pericarp provided by bracts called _______ and _______

A

lemma and palea

154
Q

threshing

A

the process of separating the cereal seed from the rest of the plant

155
Q

draw and label young barely flower

A

https://ay14.moodle.umn.edu/pluginfile.php/754423/mod_resource/content/1/Lecture%2013%20F2014%20Seed%20Physiology%20upload.html

156
Q

upon germination, the shoot and root…

A

emerge from the pericarp, but are still protected by the tight-fitting lemma and palea

this protection allows the seeds to be physically manipulated during germination without cracking off the root or shoot and killing the seed before it has reached the stage for producing malt

157
Q

germinating seed must be handled much more gingerly during malting because…

A

when the root emerges from the pericarp it is not protected during germination

158
Q

barley is the grain of choice from the biochemical standpoint because…

A

it has high starch content in its endosperm and an aleurone layer that overproduces the enzymes required to convert that starch to simple, fermentable sugars

159
Q

adjuncts

A

substitute UNMALTED GRAINS for barley malt other, less expensive, unmalted grains like corn or rice to their mash to increase the starch content

160
Q

true or false:

barley malt is a living seed

A

false

if you plant barley malt it will rot in the soil

drying and roasting kills the embryo

161
Q

two biochemical packages in barley malt

A

starch located in the endosperm and

enzymes (alpha- and beta- amylase) needed to convert that starch to sugar located in the aleurone which is a layer of cells in a tissue that surrounds the endosperm

162
Q

the malting process involves…

3 things

A
  • activating the barley seed’s metabolic pathways during the Steeping phase (“A” as shown on the cartoon on the left)
  • providing the right environmental conditions for resumption of strong embryo growth during the Germinating phase (“B”)
  • prematurely interrupting embryo growth by drying and lightly roasting the partially germinated seeds during the Drying phase (“C”)
163
Q

steeping

A

seeds are dumped into big tanks and submerged in cool, 50-55 degree Fahrenheit water

seeds are not left to soak for long

164
Q

what does the water temperature matter for steeping?

A

the water isn’t so warm that it encourages rapid growth, but just warm enough to initiate cell division

165
Q

rousing

A

oxygen being bubbled into the water

166
Q

what does rousing do?

A

by changing the water and aerating, CO2 (a waste product of seed metabolism) is removed

if CO2 were left to accumulate it could inhibit respiration

167
Q

which temperature of water holds more oxygen?

A

cooler steep water holds more oxygen and supports less microbial contamination than warmer steep water

168
Q

how long are seeds left to steep?

A

the seeds are left in the steep tank until the water content of the grain reaches 42 to 48%, which can take 24-48 hours

169
Q

how do you know germination is occurring?

A

the first visible sign of germination is the appearance of a white “chit” or sharp point of the radicle that is barely penetrating the husk where the rootlets (fine lateral roots) will emerge

170
Q

what percentage of moisture must the grain reach before it is transferred to germination beds?

A

45-48%

171
Q

germinating process

A

the bed has a perforated floor that allows aeration of the grain

air movement through the grain is used to supply oxygen, remove carbon dioxide, and maintain a temperature warmer than the steeping water of about 60-70 degrees Fahrenheit

large augers move through the bed and invert the germinating grain

172
Q

the mixing action of the augers breaks up the clumps of rootlets that would otherwise make the germinating grain into…

A

a big mat, and also helps aerate and stabilize temperature of the grain bed

173
Q

scutellum

A

the name given to the barley seed’s cotyledon

174
Q

during this germination phase, enzymes from the _______ and the ______ are secreted into the endosperm where they break down the cell walls and release the starch granules

A

scutellum and the aleurone

175
Q

just at the point of germination (at the stage called “green malt”) when the the amylase enzymes are about to start breaking down the starch to sugar…

A

the whole germination process is stopped dead in its tracks by drying and roasting the green malt

176
Q

drying or kilning

A

during this stage the green malt is dried from about 48% moisture to 23% moisture using air at a temperature of about 120-140

177
Q

totaal time drying/kilning

A

24-36 hours

178
Q

there are at least _ different types of barley grown on farms

A

2

179
Q

different types of barley grown

A

feed

malting

180
Q

feed barley

A

little higher protein content, perhaps smaller seed and higher yields than malting barely

used to feed horses, hogs, poultry, beef, and dairy cattle as a source of carbs and a bit of protein

less expensive

181
Q

malting barley

A

lower protein (it can cause a haze in beer) and higher enzyme levels for converting startch to sugar and plumper seeds than feed

bright yellow/tan with no gray discoloration

182
Q

where is malting barely best grown?

A

dry climates like Colorado, Idaho, Alberta where there is little rainfall and humidity during harvest to discolor the seeds

183
Q

malting quality barley is stored at least __ - __weeks after harvest so that the seed can after-ripen and overcome the this temporary dormanc

A

4-6

184
Q

aleurone

A

a layer of cells surrounding the endosperm, but underneath the pericarp, that is high in the enzymes used to break down the endosperm

185
Q

husk

A

actually the pericarp on the inside plus two bracts, called the lemma and palea, completely surrounding and protecting the seed

186
Q

three basic parts of carpel

A

stigma at the tip to
which pollen grains stick

style which is the channel of tissue through
which the pollen tube grows

the
ovary at the base that houses the
ovules that contain the plant’s eggs

187
Q

in a botanical sense, a fruit is…

A

the ripened ovary together with the seeds within the ovary

188
Q

In the flower the ovary wall provides protection to the ______, but after fertilization of the eggs with the sperm from the pollen, the seeds mature within the ovary and the ovary itself transforms

A

ovules

189
Q

The ripened ovary wall…

A

pericap

190
Q

“peri” meaning…

A

around the carpel

191
Q

is a bean pod a botanical fruit?

A

yes

192
Q

exocarp

A

outer layer of the pericap (also called epicarp)

193
Q

mesocarp

A

middle layer

194
Q

endocarp

A

inner layer

195
Q

can the exocarp be different across species? how?

A

yes, it can be tender, leathery, or hard

could have olive glands or kiwi hair, etc.

196
Q

pepo

A

fruits with rinds (i.e. cucumber, squash, etc.)

197
Q

what is a coconut?

A

a seed

198
Q

what are nuts?

A

a botanical name for a particular type of fruit

199
Q

simple fruit

A

fruit formed from a flower with one carpel, or multiple carpels fused together so that it looks like just one carpel

the ovary wall surrounding the carpel(s) ripens into an independent fruit

200
Q

aggregate fruit

A

the fruit is formed from the ripened ovaries present in one flower with numerous simple carpels

ripened ovaries form that one flower coalesce into one larger unit but you can still see evidence of individual carpels

as pericarps mature the fuse together to form a thimble of the raspberry that we eat

(i.e. raspberries)

201
Q

multiple fruit

A

develops from a cluster of flowers that are in close proximity in an inflorescence

ripened ovaries from the multiple flowers coalesce into one unit

(i.e. pineapple)

202
Q

how do you distinguish between aggregate fruit and multiple fruit?

A

the number of flowers involved in the fruit

an aggregate fruit is from one flower with many ovaries, and the multiple fruit is made up of multiple flowers

203
Q

true or false: fruit can be categorized as fleshy or dry

A

true

204
Q

if dry and the seeds separate from the pericarp the fruit is called…

A

dehiscent

205
Q

if fleshy and the seed is retained within the pericarp it is called

A

indehiscent

206
Q

DRUPE

A

A stone fruit, derived from a single carpel and containing (usually) one seed. The exocarp is a thin skin, the mesocarp may be fleshy and the endocarp is hard (ie “stony”).

peach

207
Q

BERRY

A

A simple fruit from a flower with a superior ovary with a fleshy pericarp and many seeds. A tomato is a berry, a grape is a berry, but a raspberry is not. (remember that a raspberry is an aggregate fruit, not a simple fruit and true berries are simple fruits).

tomato

208
Q

HESPERIDIUM

A

Like a berry, but with numerous fused carpels instead of just one. Each of the sections of the hesperidium represents one carpel. The carpels are packed with fluid-filled vesicles that are actually specialized trichomes. The carpels are surrounded by a tough, leathery exocarp. The exocarp contains volatile oil glands in pits. The orange on the right is an example of a herperidium.

orange

209
Q

LEGUME

A

Dry fruit made up of a single, folded carpel, multi-seeded, dehiscent along two sutures. It is easy to see the funiculus in peas…when you open up the pod to shell out the peas there is a small stalk attaching the pea seed to the pod…that’s the funiculus.

210
Q

CAPSULE

A

A dry, dehiscent fruit made up of several fused carpels. The images to the right show the exterior of the poppy capsule and a cross section of the capsule showing the locules with seeds inside. The capsule may split open in several ways depending on the species, including along the septa where the carpels connect, midway between the septa, or a cap may pop off as in poppy.

211
Q

CARYOPSIS

A

A fruit from one carpel containing a single seed. The pericarp is fused to the seed. A corn kernel is a caryposis. The outside of the corn kernel is the pericarp.

212
Q

ACHENE

A

Like the caryopsis (one seed per fruit) but the seed can be threshed so that the seed is free of the pericarp. You can buy sunflower seeds “in the shell”. The “shell” is the pericarp. You’ve also heard of achenes earlier when I described the actual fruits on a strawberry and the fruits inside the rose hip.

213
Q

NUT

A

A dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded fruit with a hard exocarp. The ovaries that produce nuts have more than one carpel, but through abortion, only one seed matures. The acorn shown has the pericarp partially encased in a tough covering called the involucre. True nuts will always have a hard exocarp and just one seed while this is not always the case with culinary nuts. Peanuts, for instance, have a hard exocarp but multiple seeds. Horse Chestnuts have a leathery exocarp and it is the endocarp that is hard. True nuts have a hard exocarp.

214
Q

accessory tissues sometimes adhere to the fruit, as with the …

A

pepo

215
Q

In some species parts of the flower other than the carpel (including the petals, sepals, and stamens), fuse to form a structure called the _________

A

hypanthium

216
Q

true or false: The hypanthium is the same as the receptacle

A

false

217
Q

hypanthium

A

a tissue formed from the fused bases of flower parts, and the hypanthium itself is attached to the receptacle

The point is that the hypanthium is another one of these accessory tissues that becomes involved with the fruit.

218
Q

Since the part we eat isn’t the ripened ovary wall, the apple is called an _______ ______

A

accessory fruit

219
Q

POME

A

an accessory fruit where the ovary wall forms the core in the center of the apple and the fleshy part that we eat is receptacle and hypanthium tissue. As noted earlier, the hypanthium tissue is composed of the swollen, fused bases of the petals, sepals (the perianth) and stamens.

220
Q

PEPO

A

The pepo is another example of a simple accessory fruit. Squash, for example, has a flower with an inferior ovary (sometimes called an epigynous berry) where the ovary wall is fused to receptacle tissue. This fused ovary/receptacle tissue forms a leathery or hard rind (the exocarp). The fleshy interior that we eat is the mesocarp. The goop (there’s a scientific term for you) we scrape out with the seeds is the endocarp.

221
Q

what is a strawberry?

A

swollen receptacle of the former flower and the botanical fruits are the brown specks sticking to the outside of the receptacle

accessory fruit

222
Q

What is sexual reproduction?

A

Reproduction through seeds or spores. Result of fusion of sperm and egg, also has potential for progeny to differ from parents.

223
Q

What is asexual/ vegetative reproduction?

A

Reproduction through manipulation of various plant parts, including cuttings from leaves, roots and stems or grafting.

224
Q

Phenotype

A

the way the plant looks and performs in a particular environment (two identical genotypes may still have diff. phenotypes if grown in contrasting environments)

225
Q

Genotype

A

the collection of genes the plant contains (veg. reproduction results in identical genotypes)

226
Q

What is apomixis?

A

Technically a form or asexual reproduction but disguised as sexual reproduction. In rare cases, an embryo can develop solely from maternal tissue and no fusion of egg and sperm. Ex. Kentucky Bluegrass and Dandelion

227
Q

3 Main Purposes of Seeds

A
  1. Propagation of the plant- accomplished by embryo
  2. Nutrient Storage- fuels growth of the embryo
  3. Protection- embryo & nutrient storage need a tough covering for protection from environment and predators (often a seed coat)
228
Q

What is the embryo axis (function: prop. by the embryo)?

A

essentially the embryonic root and shoot

229
Q

What is the Plumule (function: prop. by the embryo)?

A

the first true leaves of the plant that you can see attached to the embryo. these leaves will emerge from the seed, rise above the soil surface and start to collect energy from the sun.

230
Q

What is the Point of attachment (function: prop. by the embryo)?

A

spot on embryo axis where the cotyledon attached. (mid point on the embryo axis)

231
Q

What is the epicotyl (function: prop. by the embryo)?

A

the part of the embryo axis is ABOVE the point of attachment of the cotyledons.
Epigeal seedling emergence cell division in the hypocotyl is initially more active and rapid than cell division in the epicotyl which then pushes the cotyledonary node above the ground.

232
Q

What is the Hypocotyl (function: prop. by the embryo)?

A

the part of the embryo axis that is BELOW the point of attachment of the cotyledons but above the radical.
The apical meristem at the tip of the epicotyl is more active than the hypocotyl which pushed the epicotyl above the soil while the cotyledons and all the hypocotyl remain below the surface. The cotyledonary node is below the ground.

233
Q

What is the radicle (function: prop. by the embryo)?

A

the embryonic root tissue

234
Q

What is double fertilization?

A

when the angiosperm pollen grain actually holds two sperm cells, one fertilizes the egg resulting in an embryo while the other unites with 2 other maternal nuclei that grow to become endosperm tissue.

235
Q

What is the endosperm?

A

major energy and nutrient storage tissue (in a corn)

236
Q

What is coleoptile?

A

a sheath that covers the plumule and epicotyl that provide protection

237
Q

In a corn seed, there are 3 functions:

A
  1. propagation
  2. protection
  3. nutrition
    all satisfied by embryo, endosperm tissue, and the pericap
238
Q

Where can energy be stored in flowering plants?

A

the cotyledon and the endosperm

239
Q

What kind of energy is stored in tissue?

A

Carbs, Protein, Cofactors (vitamins), lipids

240
Q

Carbs

A

made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

241
Q

Protein

A

sources of amino acids from production of enzymes and nitrogen-rich compounds

242
Q

Lipids

A

plant oils in form of triglycerides

243
Q

What are Dicots?

A

seeds with 2 cotyledons (storage function). Legumes aka beans and peas are dicots and store large amounts of protein.

244
Q

What are oilseeds?

A

Ex. soybean and peanut

Legume with high protein, high lipid and low carbs (oil can be squeezed or extracted).

245
Q

What are Pulse Crops?

A

Ex. pean and bean
Have high preteen, low lipid, and high carbs.
Edible protein

246
Q

What is a monocot?

A

has a cotyledon but it is mainly used for absorption, storing starches and sugars

247
Q

What are the 2 layers of protection in a seed?

A

Seed coat (in ovule) and pericarp (in ovary)

248
Q

Parts of a flower in a cross section:

A

sepals, petals, stamen (filament and anther), and pistil (stigma, style and ovary)

249
Q

What affects the position of the cotyledon?

A

The cotyledon is affected by the rapidity of cell division in the hypocotyl region of the plant during germination and early seedling growth.

250
Q

What is taxonomy (systematics)?

A

the science of classifying organisms

251
Q

What is nomenclature?

A

a formal system of names attached to the taxonomic groupings

252
Q

What is plant taxonomy?

A

a hierarchical classification system on morphological and phylogenetic similarities among plants

253
Q

What is hierarchy?

A

a system of grouping where each classification is a subset of a superior grouping and may contain subordinate categories.

254
Q

What is morphology?

A

the appearance of a plant (its shape and structure)

255
Q

What is phylogeny?

A

the ancestral, evolutionary relationships among plants.

256
Q

What is the plant systematics hierarchy?

A

Kingdom, division, class, order, family, genus, species

257
Q

What is in the Kingdom category?

A

Animalia, Fungi, Plantae, Protozoa, Chromista, Bacteria

258
Q

What are some Family categories?

A

Arecaceae (coconut), Poaceae (corn), Musaceae (banana), Fabaceae (peas)

259
Q

Who is Carolus Linnaeus?

A

Swedish rofessor, developed the binomial nomenclature for plants.

260
Q

Traditional taxonomy

A

relies on morphological phenotype (appearance of a plant)

261
Q

Molecular Taxonomy

A

relies on genotype (particular combination of alleles of each gene in the organism)

262
Q

What is the apical meristem?

A

the site of cell division and new cell production at the tips of the plant stems and roots (undergoing mitotic cell division to produce more cells)

263
Q

What is mitosis?

A

the process of cell division where one plant cell divides into two identical cells

264
Q

What are the initials?

A

meristem cells that remain meristematic because they continue to initiate new cells

265
Q

What are derivative cells?

A

The other sister cells that divide once or twice more and then differentiate.

266
Q

Primary xylem and Primary phloem

A

xylem and phloem tissues that result from differentiation of derivative cells, primary signals that the cells originated from cell divisions of the apical meristem

267
Q

Division of apical meristem

A
  • Results in lengthening of the root or shoot in monocots.

- From a different type of meristem, dicots have results in thickening of the stem

268
Q

What is secondary growth?

A

Woody plants and shrubs, dicots, have the capacity of secondary growth and can survive year to year. Results from lateral meristem

269
Q

What is a lateral meristem?

A

lateral meristem- made up of cells that undergo mitotic cell division. Mitosis in lateral meristems result in lateral growth or thickening of the stem/root and adds to the girth rather than length

270
Q

What are the two types of lateral meristems?

A
  • vascular cambium

- cork cambium

271
Q

Vascular Cambium

A

phloem oriented to the outside, xylem to inside with a thin layer of parenchyma cells between the xylem and phloem is differentiated into fascicular cambium

272
Q

What is fasicicular cambium?

A

fascicular cambium (bundles) which then produces secondary xylem and phloem

273
Q

What is interfascicular cambium?

A

cambium between the bundles (later on in growth)

274
Q

What is periclinal division?

A

new cells formed either to outside or inside and the cell wall separates the two new cells is PARALLEL to the outside of the stem. adds girth to plant stem

275
Q

What is anticlinal division?

A

cell division where the cambium cell has divided so that the wall between the two cells is perpendicular to the outside stem.

276
Q

What is cork cambium?

A
  • Second type of cork cambium

- cork provides a protective covering around the expanding trunk of the woody plant.

277
Q

What is the phelloderm?

A

cork cambium lats down new cells toward the inside called phelloderm but lays most new cells to the outside

278
Q

What is suberin?

A

the cork cells are lined with a waxy substance called suberin making cells impermeable to water and gasses

279
Q

What are lenticels?

A

Breaks in the cork cells that allow for gas and water exchange

280
Q

What is periderm?

A

Cork cambium and is derivatives

281
Q

What does “bark” consist of?

A
  • primary and secondary phloem
  • phelloderm (think layer)
  • cork cambium
  • cork
282
Q

Where are a tree’s annual rings found?

A

in the secondary phloem

283
Q

What is an annual ring?

A

the line of demarcation between late summer and spring xylem

284
Q

Roots

A

roots of woody perennial dicots have vascular and cork cambium

Plant Propagation (HORT 1001) (6 decks)

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