Exam Study Flashcards

1
Q

Evidence Based Practice

A

Practice supported by scientific evidence, expertise and client questions
- best research evidence
- clinical expertise
- patient values
A combination of these three to achieve evidence based practice

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Allocation Bias

A

(intervention bias)
Difference between treatment and control groups of the start of the experiment
- allocation bias reduced by random allocation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Detection Bias

A

(intervention bias)

Difference in how treatment and control groups are assessed/measured

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Performance Bias

A

(intervention bias)

Events other than intended treatment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Attrition Bias

A

(intervention bias)
Some types of participants leave study, setting up unwanted differences between groups in the background characteristics of participants

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Measurement Bias

A

(intervention bias)

Outcomes measured inaccurately

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Publication Bias

A

(systematic reviews)

Studies researching unpopular research topics or treatments don’t get published, unavailable to reviewers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Long Lag Bias

A

(systematic reviews)

Delay on publication prevents research being found by practitioners/reviewers in time for their reviewers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Duplicated Publication Bias

A

(systematic reviews)

Same results from same studies repeatedly published, suggesting there’s more evidence than really is

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Outcome Reporting Bias

A

mainly desirable/expected/statistically significant results get published, even through other results equally valid/informative

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Citation Bias

A

Study cited by many other authors, reviewers are more likely to find that research compared with studies that are rarely cited/not at all

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Database Inclusion Bias

A

Studies more easily found if available from online database

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Language Bias

A

preference among reviewers for studies published in language they understand, commonly English

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Reviewer’s Personal Bias

A

Reviewers’ unfairly exclude an article because they don’t like topic/results, even though valid and relevant

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Level 1: Systematic Reviews of RCT

A

Evidence obtained from a systematic review of all relevant control trials
Reviews combines results of selected original studies to arrive at a summary conclusion

Advantages
> less costly to review rather than create a new study
> more reliable and accurate than individual studies

Disadvantages
> very time-consuming
> may not be easy to combine studies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Level 2: Randomised Controlled Trial

A

Randomly assigns participants into an experimental group or a control group
As the study is conducted, the only expected difference between the control and experimental groups in a RCT is the outcome variable being studied

Advantages
> results can be analysed with well known statistical tools
> good randomisation will ‘washout’ any population bias

Disadvantages
> expensive in terms of time and money
> volunteer biases - population in participants are from may not be completely representative

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Level 3.1: Pseudo-randomised Controlled Trial

A

Same as RCT, but participant allocation to treatment/control not genuinely random, could be approximately random

Advantages
> less effort into random allocation

Disadvantage
> risk of allocation bias

18
Q

Level 3.2: Cohort - Study

A

One or more samples (cohorts) are followed prospectively and evaluations with respect to disease or outcomes are conducted to determine which exposure characteristics (risk factors) are associated
e.g. start with group of healthy people (no disease) and follow over time to determine risk factors associated with getting disease

Advantage:
> standardisation of criteria/outcome is possible
> easier and cheaper than RCT

Disadvantage:
> no randomisation, meaning imbalances in patient characteristics could exist

19
Q

Level 3.3: Case-Control Study

A

Compares patients who have a disease/outcome of interest (cases) which patients who don’t have the disease/outcome (controls)
looks retrospectively to compare how frequently the exposure to a risk factor is present in each group to determine relationship between risk factor and disease

Advantage:
> good fro studying rare conditions or disease
> lets you simultaneously look at multiple risk factors

Disadvantage:
> more problems with data quality because they rely on memory (recall bias)
> hard to find suitable control group

20
Q

Level 4: Cross-Sectional Study

A

Captures information on a single treatment group only, at a single point in time

Advantage
> not costly/time consuming
> used to prove/disprove assumptions

Disadvantages
> doesn’t help determine cause/effect

21
Q

Correlation and Correlation Coefficient

A

Describes the size/direction of relationship between 2 or more variables

CORRELATION COEFFICIENT (r)
Measures the strength/direction of linear relationships between 2 variables on scatter plot
- value between 1 - -1
22
Q

Probability Values

A

Enable us to quickly determine whether or not a relationship between variables is statistically significant

  • lower p-value = less likely result due to chance
  • p-value = p<0.05, statistically significant
23
Q

PICO and PEO Formats

A

PICO > Quantitative

  • P: population, patient, problem
  • I: intervention
  • C: comparison
  • O: outcome

PEO > Qualitative

  • P: population, patient, problems
  • E: exposure
  • O: outcomes and themes
24
Q

Nominal

A

Used for labelling variables without quantitative value

Labels

25
Q

Ordinal

A

Order of values what’s important/significant, the difference between the values is unknown

26
Q

Interval

A

Numeric scales, know order and the exact difference between values

27
Q

Systematic Errors

A

Come from measuring instruments, data handling system, or instrument used incorrectly

28
Q

Random Errors

A

Caused by unknown/unpredictable changes in environment

May occur in measuring instruments or environmental conditions

29
Q

Sample and Sampling

A

Sample:
Group of participants who have been chosen to be apart of current study

Sampling:
Process of selecting participants so researchers can attempt to generalise their results back to a theoretical population

30
Q

Theoretical Population and Study Population

A
Theoretical Population (target population):
the larger group that the researcher wants to generalise their findings to

Study population (accessible population):
population the researcher has access to draw participants from
subset of theoretical population

31
Q

Sampling Errors (random errors, systemic errors)

A

Participants chosen is inadequate or not random

Random Errors:
common/occur randomly as result of under/over-representation of certain groups

Systemic Errors:
result of inconsistencies/errors in sampling frame

32
Q

Non-probability Sampling

A

Doesn’t involve randomisation
Process that doesn’t give all participants in the population an equal chance of being selected
Used to disprove hypothesis rather than prove

33
Q

Probability Sampling

A

Fundamental characteristics is random selection of participants from population
Doesn’t ensure generalisability of findings, does ensure differences are due to chance

34
Q

Type 1 Errors

A

When the p-value says that the results are statistically significant (the intervention works) but in reality it doesn’t

e.g. p=0.01: technically statistically significant but due to chance

35
Q

Type 2 Errors

A

When the p-value says that the results aren’t statistically significant but in reality they are

e.g. p=0.06: technically not statistically significant but actually is

36
Q

Simple Random Sampling

A

Every participant has an equal chance of selection
There are several methods (e.g. statistical software, random number tables)

Advantages:
> easiest method and most commonly used
> high generalisability

37
Q

Systemic Random Sampling

A

Participants are systemically selected from a list, selected at intervals pre-determined by researcher
Generally every Xth number until desired sample size in reached

Advantages:
> very easy to use

Disadvantages
> systemic biases possible
> can only be random if the list is ordered randomly

38
Q

Stratified Random Sampling

A

A population is divided into groups known as ‘strata’ and then continue by either implementing simple random sampling or systemic random sampling

Advantages:
> ensures adequate sample size for subgroups in the population of interest

Disadvantages
> problematic is stratas aren’t clearly defined
> analysis is typically complicated and the technique is time consuming

39
Q

Cluster Random Sampling

A

When the population is divided into a cluster, then you randomly sample the cluster

Advantages:
> cost effective

Disadvantages:
> less efficient as you need a larger sample

40
Q

Multi-Stage Random Sampling

A

Sampling techniques that is carried out in various stages
Sample has a primary population followed by sub-populations

Advantages:
> used when simple random, systemic or stratified sampling would be to complex/expensive

41
Q

Convenience Sampling (aka. accidental/haphazard)

A

Participant chosen because of convenience (e.g. close proximity)

Advantages:
> easy access to participants
> cost effective
> can provide rich qualitative data

Disadvantages:
> doesn’t produce sensitive samples
> results hard to replicate

42
Q

Snowball Sampling

A

Begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in your study
Ask them to remember others who they know meet the criteria

Advantages:
> used for hard-to-reach participants that would typically be hard to access
> cost effective

Disadvantages:
> not used for generalisations - except for similarly hard-to-locate participants