Exam Study Flashcards
What are the two types of statistics?
Descriptive
= summarise the data collected from the sample
Inferential
= generalize from the sample to the population
Describe the Authority Approach:
seeking knowledge from sources thought to be reliable and valid
Describe the Analogy Approach:
the analogy between a new event and a more familiar event
Describe the Rule Approach:
establishing rules or laws that cover different observations
Describe the Empirical Approach:
testing ideas against actual events
What are the 4 Goals of Science?
Description, Explanation, Prediction, Control
What is the Floor effect?
when the task is so hard, that all scores are very low
What is the Ceiling effect?
when the task is so easy, that all scores are very high
Describe what a True-experiment and a Quasi-experiment are?
True-experiment
= manipulated variable (prediction and explanation)
Quasi-experiment
= subject variable ( ONLY prediction)
What is a Numerical variable?
anything with numbers
age and response time
What is a Categorical variable?
allocates things into categories
order or unordered
What is a Nominal variable?
categorizes without ordering
e.g. - gender
What is an Ordinal variable?
categorizes with ordering
e.g. - military rank
What is an Interval variable?
categorizes and orders with an equal distance between each category
What is a Ratio variable?
categorizes, orders and establishes equal units, and has a true zero point
What are Demand Characteristics?
cues in a situation that people interpret as demands for a particular behavior
What is the main effect and the interaction effect?
Main Effect
= effect of one IV on the DV
Interaction Effect
= effect of one IV on the DV, while taking other IV’s into account
Describe the One-tailed test and the Two-tailed test?
One-tailed test
= critical area of distribution is one-sided
Two-tailed test
= critical area of distribution is two-sided
What is the Central Limit Theorem?
when independent random variables are added, their properly normalized sum tends towards a normal distribution
Describe Type-I Error:
rejecting the null hypothesis when it’s true
Describe Type-II Error:
retaining the null hypothesis when it’s false
What is a One-Sample T-test and a Two-Sample T-test?
One-Sample T-test
= used to determine whether or not there is a difference between the unknown population mean and a specific value
Two-Sample T-test
= used to test whether the unknown population means of two groups are equal or not
What are Qualitative and Quantitative research?
Qualitative
= results described by interviews and observations
Quantitative
= results described by statistics
What is Exploratory and Confirmatory research?
Exploratory research
= describing and explaining (inductive)
Confirmatory research
= predicting and controlling (deductive)
Describe the Mean, Median, Mode, Range and Standard Deviation:
Mean = middle score of data set
Median = ‘actual’ middle of data set
Mode = most common score of the data set
Range = difference between largest and smallest
Standard Deviation = calculation of data spread based on how far each score is from the mean of the sample
What are the Null and Alternative hypotheses?
Null Hypothesis
= no real difference between DV of the conditions
(no relationship)
Alternative Hypothesis
= real difference between DV of the conditions (relationship)
Describe Multiple Regression:
using more than one predictable variable
What is a Controlled Experimental study?
experimenter directly controls changes in IV to observe how DV changes
What is a correlational study?
no direct control & relies on associations that already exist
Describe Ontology and Epistemology:
Ontology
= relativism, peoples realities depend on their perception
Epistemology
= social constructionism, knowledge being generated in attempts to explain the human world
What are the different structures of one-on-one interviews?
Structured
= closed questions
Unstructured
= just having a research topic in mind
Semi-Structured
= open-ended questions
Describe the de Visser and Smith study:
did a case study (one participant) and made notes on their transcript, clustered the potential themes, and entirely focused on what can be learnt from them
What are Focus groups?
an informal discussion among selected individuals about specific topics
Describe the Lyons and Williot study:
had 8 focus groups which allowed for interactions
- the meanings reproduced in talk (open-ended questions) in which they transcribed, read twice, and did a detailed analysis
- provided insight into how alcohol actively performs gender
What is Cultural Sensitivity?
allows participants to identify ethnicity
What is Informed Consent?
seeking permission and explaining how the data will be used
What is the Deception/Protection of Harm?
deception only used when no alternative and is important to use when awareness reduces the effect
(also debriefing to offer sources of help)
What is Confidentiality?
access to data and removal of identifiers + avoiding dilemmas (re-use of data)
Describe Ethics for Quantitative and Qualitative:
Quantitative Ethics
= participants hold info that needs to be collected by researchers
Qualitative Ethics
= doing research WITH the participants, not ON them
Describe Sampling for Quantitative and Qualitative:
Quantitative Sampling
= led by statistical power + must be random sampling
Qualitative Sampling
= led by depth + uses purposeful sampling
Describe the 3 types of Photo-Elicitation?
Photo-Elicitation is using photos as interview prompts
Researcher Led = showing pre-selected photos
Participant-Led = asking participants to take photos
Participatory = participants leading the study
Describe the 3 types of Media Elicitation?
Media-Elicitation is indirect
Researcher-Led: media pre-selected by researchers
Participant-Led: spontaneously mentioned/requested
Primary Media Analysis: no participants, just media
What is Coding?
system of words, letters, or signs to represent something
- There is a limitation in memory storage of coded information
What is Introspection?
the examination of ones own conscious thoughts and feelings
What is Subitising?
using rapid, accurate, and confident judgements of numbers
- only works for small numbers and it is pre-attentive
What is Attention?
the allocation of limited processing resources
- when increasing the number of items, we use counting which is attentional
What is George Miller’s Theory?
suggest human channel capacity is the magic number 7 (+/- 2)
Describe Input-Output correlation:
measures the relationship of the input on the output
- as the number of input increases, their output will initially increase but then have more and more errors
Describe the Adaptive Brain:
the process of change in the context of the environment
What did Donald Hebb discover:
Hebbs Law
= when an axon (cell A) is close enough to excite cell B and take part in firing it, some growth of metabolic change in 1 or both cells results in more firing of cells
What are Neurons?
specialized cells
What are Axons?
pathways in the brain
What are Synapses?
junctions between neurons that allow electrons to neurochemically connect
What is a Network?
combination of neurons which could be grouped together as one processing unit
What is a Hierarchy?
organization of brain networks that higher processes inform, suppress, and inhibit lower ones
What did John Hughlings Jackson discover?
all nervous centres from the lowest to the very highest are made up of nothing else than nervous arrangements, representing impressions and movements
Describe EEG:
EEG = way to measure brain activity
recorded from a small area of the scalp reflects the firing activity of a large number of neurons
What is Temporal Resolution?
amount of time needed to revisit and acquire data for the same location
What is Spatial Resolution?
the measure of the smallest object that can be resolved by the sensor
What is Spectral Power?
reflects the frequency content of the signal
What is Delta?
type of brain wave that is large and slow
What is Theta?
type of regular brain wave with a frequency of 4-7Hz
What is Alpha?
type of large brain wave with a frequency of 8-13Hz
What is Beta?
type of brain wave with a frequency of 12-30Hz (associated with normal waking consciousness)
What is Gamma?
type of brain wave with a frequency of 25-140Hz (40hZ of particular interest)
Describe Event-Related Potential:
measured brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event
What is a Stimulus lock and a Response lock?
Stimulus lock
= time lock to when a visual stimulus occurs
Response lock
= time lock to when a subject responds
What is an MRI and a DTI?
MRI = low temporal resolution and high spatial resolution
DTI = MRI technique that measures the rate of water diffusion between cells
Describe averaging across trials:
exposing participants to many trials involving the same stimuli and requiring the same response
Describe averaging across participants:
exposing some participants to a trial and other participants to another trial, then averaging each group
What is a Callosotomy?
surgical disconnection of the Corpus Callosum
Describe Visual Lateralisation:
the technique used to deliver stimulus information to each cerebral hemisphere seperately
(if someone doesn’t have a corpus callosum, two bits of info stay in different hemispheres which is known as split-brain)
What is Spatial Coupling?
refers to the interactions between the drawings of two hands
(occurs in neurologically normal people, but not in split-brain people)
Describe a Well-Learned action:
performance of a skill that has been practiced repeatedly with no or little direct attention
Describe a Novel action:
performance of a skill that has not been practiced very much with lots of direct attention
What is Cross-Modal?
use of two different sense modalities (e.g. Vision and Audition)
(congruent inputs tend to facilitate performance)
Describe Somatosensory:
relating to a sensation that can occur in the body
What is a Perceptual Illusion?
a faulty or distorted perception of something externally presented
What is a Phantom Limb?
the sensation that an amputated or missing limb is still attached
What is the Speed-Accuracy trade-off?
as performance gets faster, accuracy decreases + vice versa
Describe Congruent and Incongruent:
Congruent = in line with each other
Incongruent = uneven with each other
What are top-down and bottom-up processing?
Top-Down Processing
= perceptions begin with the most general and move toward more specific
Bottom-Up Processing
= perceptions begin with an incoming stimulus and then work upwards until a representation is made in the mind
What is Perceptual Manipulation?
used in Franz & McCormick
- when participants had to move fingers from starting position to two circles
- they perceptually manipulated this by adding lines connecting the two circles (helps to perceive it as one action with both hands)
What is Conceptual Manipulation?
used in Franz & McCormick
- set of instructions were given displayed in the form of simple phrases
- used 2 trials which were Unified (imply one task “use both hands”) and Separate (imply two tasks “move the left and right hands”)
What are Congenital Mirror Movements?
condition when the hand mirroring everything the other hand is doing
Describe Proximal and Bilateral:
Proximal
= situated near the middle of the body & larger limbs
Bilateral
= relating to and affecting both sides
Describe Plasticity:
when referring to the brain, we are talking about changes
String Player experiment
- neuroplasticity has occurred in the sensorimotor cortex associated with rapid dexterous movements of the fingers + sensory processing of feedback
Juggling experiment
- scan the brain before and after learning takes place
- shows once they learn the skill, structure of the brain changes in the occipital and temporal lobes
