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HLTH 205 > Exam Study #1 > Flashcards

Exam Study #1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is Research?

A

Organized study or gathering of information about a specific topic.
* Systematic investigation of a topic that produces new knowledge or
uses existing knowledge in new and innovative ways.

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2
Q

Scientific method

A

a systematic body of procedures and techniques
applied to carry out an investigation or experimentation targeted at
obtaining new knowledge.

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3
Q

What do we mean by practice?

A

The practice side of research relates to implementation
* How the word ‘practice’ is applied might vary but includes moving
research into action or decision making

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4
Q

What are the 8 stages of the research cycle?

A
  • Questioning
  • Planning
  • Gathering
  • Sorting
  • Synthetizing
  • Evaluating
  • Reporting
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5
Q

Reflexivity

A
  • Exploring personal beliefs, bias, and judgements; assessing how this
    impacts your research
  • Personally – positionality, social identity/location, lived experiences,
    professional history
  • Methodologically – how your knowledge and preconceptions affect your
    decisions about research design and processes
  • Every stage of the research cycle
  • BUT, depending on your research approach you may embrace or mitigate
    reflexivity
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6
Q

Characteristics of a literature review in health

A
  • Written for academic/practitioner audience
  • Evidence is gathered from peer reviewed,
    scholarly sources
  • May broaden evidence to non-traditional
    sources of information (grey literature)
  • Unbiased
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7
Q

Types of practice

A
  • Policy development at various levels
  • Development of practice guidelines (e.g., in a clinical setting)
  • Development of strategies to address health problems (e.g., health promotion
    strategies)
  • Education programmes
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8
Q

Importance of health research

A

*Disease trends, risk factors and behaviours

*Outcomes of treatment or public health interventions

*Patterns of health care, and health care costs and use

*Social-environment causes and patterns of health

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9
Q

Types of health research

A

*Behavioural
*How people and groups act in different ways (and why)

*Clinical
*Testing new medicines and devices (e.g., clinical trials, medical treatments)

*Genetic
*Examines the role of genes and different health diseases and health conditions

*Public health
*Focus on prevention and treatment of illness in communities/populations (SDoH, prevention policies)
*Also explore disease trends of populations (epidemiology)

*Systems and Policies
*Exploring patient feedback and experiences

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10
Q

Step 1 of the research cycle

A

Literature review
-Find gaps in the research
-Things to consider when reviewing the literature and formulating research questions:
o Has the question been asked before?
o How did they research it?
o Are there any research methods & instruments you
can use?
o What findings did they get?
o Are there any lessons to be learned

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11
Q

Step 2 of the research cycle

A

Research Purpose and Question
-Drawing on theory, individual beliefs, knowledge, previous research & literature

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12
Q

Step 3 of the research cycle

A

Hypothesis and Propositions
-Primarily useful for quantitative research; however, in qualitative, we can ‘test’ propositions
-A suggested (hypothetical but with a solid foundation) link between two (or more) variables
-Research problems are broken down into a number of hypotheses

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13
Q

Step 4 of the research cycle

A

Methods and Methodology
* How do we plan to measure/investigate the relevant concepts?
* Method and methodology are often used as though they were synonyms – they are not
* Methodology is the study of methods and refers to the strategy or design to research

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14
Q

Step 5 of the research cycle

A

Sampling and Recruitment
Selection of a subset of a population for research
* Quantitative:
* Representative
* Qualitative:
* Purposive

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15
Q

Step 6 of the research cycle

A

Data Collection
* Explicit details about how you are collecting your data
o Paper or online surveys
o Interviews or focus groups
o Observations
o Visual methods
o Documentation review
o Social media

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16
Q

Step 7 of the research cycle

A

Data Analysis and Interpretation
* Depends on your design and research question(s)
* Interpretations are guided by the chosen theoretical approach

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17
Q

Step 8 of the research cycle

A

Disseminate Findings
* Process of communicating knowledge to target audiences
* Vital to ensure that the conducted research has a health, social, political, or economic impact
* Knowledge mobilization/translation strategies
o Know your audience & setting
o Target messages
o Right tools (written, oral, visual)

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18
Q

Pros and cons of quantitative research

A

Pros
Test hypothesis
Replication
Can be quicker
Contributes to answering the WHAT and HOW
Generalizable

Cons
Lack of context
Unnatural environment &findings
Less rich/detailed insights

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19
Q

Pros and cons of qualitative research

A

Pros
Flexibility and innovation
Naturalistic settings
Meaningful, deep insights
Contributes to answering the WHY & HOW

Cons
Subjectivity*
Limited generalizability
Resource Intensive

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20
Q

Post-positivism

A

*Positivism contains the underlying philosophical assumptions of research in most of the natural sciences

*Based around the development of general laws/truths that can be used to understand the world

*Testing of theories (deductivism – more on this later!)

*Research approach is governed by the Scientific Method

*Positivism is based on ideas of:

*Objectivity (i.e., the objective reality of the physical world)

*Deterministic (i.e., causes determine effects or outcomes)

*Empiricism (i.e., observation and measurement)

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21
Q

Interpretivism/Constructivism

A

*Rejects the view that scientific empiricism can be applied to the social world.

*Does not use predefine variables, but explores human sense-making in naturalistic settings

*Theories and methods for interpreting human action and understanding how individuals make sense of the world

*Assumption - social reality can only be understood through social constructions such as language, consciousness and shared meanings

*Relativity and context

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22
Q
A
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22
Q

What is a purpose statement?

A

*Establishes the goals of the entire research study

*Ultimately the most important statement in the entire study

*Explains WHY you want to conduct your research and WHAT you hope to accomplish

*Can also be called study aim or objective

*Suggests how it’s adding to scholarly research/literature or practice or policy

23
Q

Qualitative purpose statement

A

-Single phenomenon
-Phrases: understand, explore, examine, develop
-Neutral and Non-leading
-Name the participants and site
-*May include methodology

24
Q

Quantitative purpose statement

A

-Comparing variables
-Phrases: explores or examines relationship between variables
-Identify theory using
-Name participants and site
-*May include methodology

25
Q

Micro theory

A

*Individual beliefs, attitudes, cognitions, behaviours

*Used in health psychology (e.g., Health Belief Model)

26
Q

Macro theory

A

*Deal with large-scale social events of society – the way we are organized, function and meanings

*Used in sociology (e.g., Feminist, Critical Race Theory)

27
Q

Phenomenology

A

What is the common experience of an activity or concept from the perspective of
particular participants?
-Describe the essence of the experience (of a group of people)

28
Q

Narrative

A

How do participants make sense of their lives or the phenomenon through stories?
-Examine or explore stories of individuals

29
Q

Grounded Theory

A

How is an inductively derived theory about a phenomenon grounded in the data
-Discover or generate a theory

30
Q

Ethnography

A

What are the cultural patterns and perspectives of this group in their natural setting?
-Seek to understand a culture-sharing group

31
Q

Case Study

A

What are the characteristics of a particular entity, phenomenon, person, setting?
-Explore a process or in-depth description of a program or case

32
Q
A
33
Q

Ethnomethodology

A

How do people make sense of their everyday activities in order to behave in socially
acceptable ways?

34
Q

Symbolic
Interactionism

A

How do people construct meaning and shared perspectives by interacting with
others?

35
Q

Benefits of Qualitative Research

A
  • The potential to illuminate everyday life – to better understand the
    unfamiliar and strange
  • Can provide specific, concrete details to guide an understanding of a
    particular setting
  • Can provide interpretation of local meanings that activities and
    practices have for a group engaged in them
  • To illuminate differences across settings
36
Q

Limitations of Qualitative Research

A
  • Subjectivity is inherent
    • In ALL research (not just qualitative)
    • Reflexivity is championed in qualitative
  • Labour/ time intensive
    • Underestimation of the vast amount of time it takes to undertake the data
      collection, arrange the interviews/ focus groups, transcribe the data,
      undertake data analysis etc
  • Misunderstanding of novice researchers
    • Many researchers think it is a ‘soft option’, but have little understanding of
      the complexities involved
    • Quality and trustworthiness of studies are then compromised
  • Limited generalisability
    • However, this is not the point of qualitative studies, therefore seems an
      inappropriate standard by which to judge
37
Q

Qualitative Sampling

A

*Purposive Samples:

*Homogenous– provide detailed picture of a particular phenomenon

*Heterogenous/maximum variation– to include phenomena that widely vary from each other

*Extreme case/deviant– chosen because unique or special, therefore illuminating

*Intensity sampling– focuses on cases which strongly represent the phenomena or interest (rather than unusual cases)

*Typical case sampling– characterize normal or average selected for detailed (e.g., participants may be selected based upon response from a survey)

*Critical case sampling- Demonstrate a phenomenon of position “dramatically” or are pivotal to the delivery of a process or operation

38
Q

What is Quantitative research?

A

*Approach for testing theories by examining the relationship between variables

*Based on:
*Post-positivism/The scientific method
*Deductive approach (testing theories rather than developing theories)
*Numbered data that can be analysed using statistical techniques

39
Q

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

A

*Patterns & relationships among variables (describe, predict,associations)

*Variables are pre-determined and defined

*Variables measured using instruments (e.g., closed-ended surveys, observations, etc.) that collects numerical data

*Example: Researcher measures Depression using the CES-D (Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression) Questionnaire

*Objective – control for bias

*Generalize to the larger population and replicate findings

*Larger samples

40
Q

Benefits of Quantitative Research

A
  • Large sample sizes
    • Online surveys – easier to recruit and collect data from a large number of
      people
  • Larger sample sizes increases generalisability of the results to the
    population being studied
  • Quicker data collection*
    • *Not necessarily the case for longitudinal quantitative designs (i.e., cohort
      studies, repeated measures designs, etc.)
  • Faster analysis and interpretation of results
    • Subjectivity is present in ALL research, but less room to impact interpretations
      in Quantitative designs
41
Q

Limitations of Quantitative Research

A
  • Measures/scales used may not capture constructs being studied
  • Statistical significance of results may have little real-world meaning
    • Clinical significance of significant, but small, differences
  • Complexity of quantitative designs complicates statistical analysis and
    interpretation of results
    • Misinterpretation of results/inappropriate data analysis techniques
  • Less depth and complexity to findings
    • Ex: Pre-defined questions, closed-ended surveys
  • Larger sample sizes can be more expensive
42
Q

Experimental

A
  • Determine whether a treatment influences an outcome(s)
  • Researcher manipulation of treatment conditions
  • Example question: Does a 3-week mindfulness program decrease levels of
    depression in teenagers?
43
Q

Non-experimental/Survey/Observational

A
  • Examines associations between variables in a population
  • No treatment is applied
  • Example question: Is there an association between number of hours studied
    and final exam scores in HLTH 205 students?
44
Q

True experiment

A
  • Explores the impact of a treatment(s) on an outcome
  • Treatment group(s) is compared to a control group that does not receive the
    treatment
  • Random assignment of participants to conditions (e.g., random number
    generator)
  • Used to explore cause and effect relationships
45
Q

Pre-experimental

A
  • Similar to a true experiment, but with no control group
  • Researcher studies the effects of a treatment on an outcome in a single group
  • Exploratory - usually conducted as a precursor to a true experiment
46
Q

Quasi-experimental

A
  • Similar to a true experiment, but with no random assignment to conditions
  • Researcher studies the effects of a treatment on an outcome, compared to a
    control group
  • Participants are NOT randomly assigned to treatment conditions
  • Used when random assignment is not possible/occurs naturally
47
Q

Cross-sectional

A

Collection of data at one point in time
* Surveys, measurements, etc.
* Used to explore relationships between variables at a single point in time
* Example: Is there a relationship between number of hours studied and HLTH
205 final exam scores?
* Advantages:
* Quicker, low cost, hypothesis generation, describing a population
* Disadvantages:
* Cannot determine cause and effect or changes over time

48
Q

Longitudinal

A
  • Collects data from the same people/samples over an extended period of time
    (weeks, months, years)
  • Used to explore relationships between variables over time
    • Explore changes, trends, etc.
  • Example: Researcher recruits a sample of first-year students, and collects data
    from them every year for 4 years
  • Advantages:
    • Explore changes within individuals over time, long-term health effects
  • Disadvantages:
    • Time consuming, expensive, participant drop-out over time (attrition)
49
Q

Cohort Study

A
  • Type of longitudinal study that follows groups over time
  • Used to explore long-term health outcomes between groups of exposed and
    unexposed individuals
  • Selection of groups:
    • One group that HAS been exposed to a particular exposure of interest
    • One group that HAS NOT been exposed to the particular exposure of interest
  • Groups are followed up with over time to determine if they develop a
    particular health outcome
  • Example: Researcher explores lung cancer outcomes between one
    group of individuals who were exposed to an environmental toxin,
    and one group that was not exposed
50
Q

Case-control Study

A
  • Similar to a cohort study, but the outcome of interest has already occurred
  • Exposure and outcome information is collected at one point in time, and
    compared between the groups
  • Selection of groups:
    • One group that HAS developed the health outcome of interest
    • One group that HAS NOT developed the health outcome of interest
  • Exposure information between the two groups is collected and compared to
    determine if exposure is associated with the health outcome
  • Example: Researcher explores environmental toxin exposure status
    between one group of individuals who have developed lung cancer,
    and one group that has not developed lung cancer
51
Q

Sampling & Recruitment of participants for quantitative research

A
  • Typically, Probabilistic/Random sampling: each individual in the
    population has an equal probability of being selected for the sample
    • Depends on the research question: Purposive/Non-random sampling can also be
      used in Quantitative research
  • Sample size is guided by Power analyses (discussed shortly)
  • Inclusion and Exclusion criteria for participation
  • Recruitment
    • Strategies: posters, random digit dialling, social media, referrals, etc.
    • Incentives: online surveys ($5-10 dollars), experiments (more $ compensation)
52
Q

What is Mixed Methods (MM) Research?

A
  • Collection of both qualitative and quantitative data
    • Some question the “mixing” of data and consider ‘methodological pluralism’
  • Rigorous methods of both types of research
    • Data collection, data analysis, interpretation
  • Both forms of data are integrated into a mixed methods study design
  • Process often informed by a particular epistemology/theory
53
Q

Mixed Methods Designs

A
  • Continuous collection of both data types (convergent)
  • Continuous qual across waves of quant (convergent)
  • Quantitative followed by qualitative (explanatory)
  • Qualitative followed by quantitative (exploratory)
54
Q

Convergent Designs

A
  • Collect both types of data, analyse separately, compare results
  • Do the results confirm or disconfirm each other?
    1. Continuous collection of both types of data
    2. Continuous Qual across waves of Quant
55
Q

Explanatory Sequential

A
  • Quantitative first phase (collection & analysis) then quantitative results
    are used to plan/design a second qualitative phase
  • Quantitative results inform qualitative design (sample, questions)
  • Qualitative results help to explain/provide depth to quantitative results
56
Q
A

HLTH 205 (1 decks)

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