Exam Sample Questions Flashcards
(202 cards)
1
Q
The Greek philosopher Aristotle believed that the brain was the seat of intelligence
True of False
A
FALSE
It was Hippocrates
2
Q
The subarachnoid space contains cerebrospinal fluid
True or False?
A
TRUE
3
Q
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are normally found in the developing nervous system
True or False?
A
FALSE
They are generated directly from adult cells
4
Q
An axodendritic synapse involves communication between the dendrite of the presynaptic neuron and the cell body of the postsynaptic neuron
True or False?
A
FALSE
It involves communication between the axon of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrites of the post synaptic neuron
5
Q
Glutamate is mainly synthesised from glucose in glial cells in the brain
True or False?
A
FALSE
It is synthesised from Glutamine via phosphate activated glutaminase
6
Q
Vasopressin is released by neurons of the hypothalamus and has the physiological effect of decreasing the amount of urine released from the body
True or False?
A
TRUE
Vasopressin is also known as Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
7
Q
Patients with bilateral lesions of the amygdala are unable to recognise fear in facial expressions
True or False?
A
TRUE
8
Q
Olfactory neurons are concerned with the sensation of smell
True or False?
A
TRUE
9
Q
The third interstitial nuclei of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH) is larger in women than in men
True or False?
A
FALSE
10
Q
Long term effects of ecstasy increase the activity of noradrenergic neurons
True or False?
A
FALSE
Increases levels of Serotonin, Dopamine and Noradrenaline
11
Q
MRI has shown that the hypothalamus is associated with the ability to perceive and synchronise with a musical beat
True or False?
A
FALSE
Cerebellum
12
Q
Benzodiazepine drugs reduce anxiety by inducing structural changes in the brain slowly over a period of weeks
True or False?
A
FALSE
They act immediately.
Long term use can lead to dependance and reduced effectiveness of the drug
13
Q
Mania is characterised by an increased need for sleep
True or False?
A
FALSE
Characterised by a decreased need for sleep
14
Q
Retrograde amnesia is an inability to form new memories following brain trauma
True or False?
A
FALSE
It’s the ability to recall memories prior to trauma
15
Q
In Alzheimer’s disease brains, neuritic plaques contain the protein β-amyloid
True or False?
A
TRUE
16
Q
What are Neurological Disorders?
A
Disorders that affect the brain, nerves and spinal cord
17
Q
What are Psychiatric Disorders?
A
Disorders of thought, mood or behaviour that causes distress or impaired functioning
18
Q
What are the symptoms of a Panic Disorder (Anxiety Disorder)?
A
Reoccurring, unprovoked panic attacks, and a persistent worry of having further attacks
19
Q
What are the symptoms of Agoraphobia (Anxiety Disorder)?
A
- Severe anxiety
- Avoidance of social situations
20
Q
What are the symptoms of a Generalised Anxiety Disorder (Anxiety Disorder)?
A
- Persistent and excessive anxiety
- Restlessness
- Sense of dread
- Feeling “on edge”
- Difficulty concentrating
- Irritability
- Muscle tension
- Disturbed sleep
21
Q
What are the symptoms of Specific Phobias (Anxiety Disorder)?
A
Avoidance behviour due to severe anxiety
22
Q
What are the symptoms of Social Phobias (Anxiety Disorder)?
A
Avoidance behaviour due to significant anxiety
23
Q
What are the symptoms of Major Depression (Affective Disorder)?
A
- Lowered mood
- Decreased interest or pleasure in all activities (anhedonia)
24
Q
What are the symptoms of Bipolar Disorder (Affective Disorder)?
A
- Mania
- Depression
25
What are the symptoms of Mania?
* Abnormally and persitent elevated mood
* Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
* Decreased need for sleep
* Increased talking or feelings of pressure to keep talking
* Racing thoughts
* Distractability
* Increased goal-directed activity
* Impaired judgement
26
What are the POSITIVE symptoms of Schizophrenia?
* Delusions
* Hallucinations
* Disorganised speech
* Grossly disorganised or catatonic behaviour
27
What are the NEGATIVE symptoms of Schizophrenia?
* Reduced expression of emotion / lack of pleasure
* Poverty of speech (ALOGIA)
* Difficulty initiating goal-directed behaviour
* Lack of motivation (AVOLITION)
* Memory and attention impairments
28
What is the hypothesis for the biological basis of Anxiety Disorders?
* Genetic predispositions but no single gene
* Gene x Environment interactions
* Fear evoked by threatening stimulus initiates stress response
* Stimulus response relationship strengthened (or weakened) by experience
29
What is the Monoamine Hypothesis for the biological basis of Depression?
Deficit in the central diffuse monoamine modulatory systems (Serotonin, 5-HT; Noradrenaline, NE)
30
What is the Diathesis-Stress Hypothesis for the biological basis of Depression?
Genetic predisposition (DIATHESIS) interacts with stressful life experiences increasing risk for depression
31
What is the Anterior Cingulate Cortex Dysfunction Hypothesis for the biological basis of Depression?
Resting-state metabolic activity in the anterior cingulate cortex increased in depression
32
What is the Gene-Environment Interactions Hypothesis for the biological basis of Schizophrenia?
Strong genetic basis
33
What brain structure alterations indicate Schizophrenia?
* Enlarged ventricles
* Defects in myelin sheaths
* Reduced cortical thickness
34
What is the Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia?
Psychotic episodes triggered by activation of dopamine receptors
35
What is the Glutamate Hypothesis of Schizophrenia?
Diminished activation of NMDA receptors (a type of Glutamate receptor)
36
What are the THREE treatments for Anxiety Disorders?
1. Psychotherapy
2. Benzodiazepines
3. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
37
What is the mechanism of action of Benzodiazepines?
Binds GABA receptors making it more effective at opening the receptor channel and thus increasing inhibition
38
What is the mechanism of action of SSRIs?
Increase synaptic concentrations of serotonin by inhibiting its reuptake from the synaptic cleft
Good for treating OCD and GAD
39
What is the treatment for Major Depression?
SSRIs
40
What is the treatment and mechanism of action for Bipolar Disorder?
Lithium
Mood stabiliser drug that treats mania and reduces cycling between mania and depression
41
What is the treatment for Schizophrenia?
Antipsychotic drugs treat positive symptoms but not negative or cognitive symptoms
42
What nerve types make up the Sensory Nervous System?
Somatic Sensory and Visceral Sensory
43
What nerve types make up the Motor Nervous System?
Somatic Motor and Autonomic Motor
44
What is Brodmanns Cytoarchitectural map?
A map of the cerebral cortex based on the organisation of neurons
45
What is the function of the Frontal lobe?
Executive function and personality
46
What is the function of the Parietal lobe?
Muscle movement and Sensory processing
47
What is the function of the Temporal lobe?
Language, Communication, Learning and Memory
48
What is the function of the Occipital lobe?
Vision
49
What is the Limbic System?
Emotional centre of the brain
50
What behaviours are controlled by the Limbic System?
Movitaved and Emotional behaviours
* Anxiety
* Sexual behaviour
* Aggression
* Food intake
* Thirst
* Memory
51
What are the structures of the Limbic System?
* Septum
* Cingulate Gyrus
* Fornix
* Hippocampus
* Mammilliary Body
* Amygdala
* Hypothalamus
* Olfactory Bulb
52
What structures make up the Diencephalon?
Thalamus and Hypothalamus
53
What is the function of the Thalamus?
Relays sensory and motor signals
54
What is the function of the Hypothalamus?
Controls the endocrine system (temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep-wake cycle)
55
What are the 12 Cranial Nerves?
Only One Of The Two Athletes Felt Very Good Victorious And Healthy
1. Olfactory (I)
2. Optic (II)
3. Occulomotor (III)
4. Trochlear (IV)
5. Trigeminal (V)
6. Abducens (VI)
7. Facial (VII)
8. Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
9. Glossopharyngeal (IX)
10. Vagus (X)
11. Accessory (XI)
12. Hypoglossal (XII)
56
What part of the spinal nerve receives Sensory information?
Dorsal root
57
What part of the spinal nerve sends information to the Muscles?
Ventral root
58
What part of the spinal nerve has ganglia?
Dorsal root
59
What are the structures of the Meninges?
* Dura Mater
* Arachnoid Mater
* Subarachnoid space
* Pia Mater
60
Where is CSF produced?
Choroid Plexus
61
What stain is used to highlight Neurons in light microscopy?
βIII-Tubulin
(GREEN)
62
What stain is used to highlight the Nuclear Body in light microscopy?
Bisbenzamide
(BLUE)
63
What are the features of an Electrical Synapse?
* Occur at gap junctions
* Direct transfer of ionic current
* Bidirectional
* Very fast transmission
* Results in postsynaptic potential (PSP)
64
What are the protein pores on gap junctions called?
Hexameric complexes are formed from proteins called Connexons
65
What is an Ionotropic receptor?
* Rapid, phasic response
* NT binding alters the state of the ion channel
* Receptor composed of multiple subunits
66
What is a Metabotropic receptor?
* Long-lasting response
* NT binding initiates G-protein binding and activation
* Activation of enzyme cascades in postsynaptic cell
* Receptor contains 7 trasmembrane domains
67
What are the mechanisms for removing neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft?
1. Enzymatic inactivation
2. Reuptake into presynaptic terminal
3. Glial cells
4. Uptake into the postsynaptic terminal
5. Diffusion out of the synaptic cleft
68
What are the FOUR classes of neurotransmitters?
1. Acetylcholine
2. Monoamines
3. Amino Acids
4. Neuropeptides
69
What are the Monoamine neurotransmitters?
1. Catecholamines (Dopamine, Noradrenaline, Adrenaline)
2. Serotonin
3. Histamine
70
What are the Amino Acid neurotransmitters?
1. Glutamate
2. Aspartate
3. Glycine
4. GABA
71
What enzyme is involved in synthesising Acetylcholine (ACh)?
Choline Acetyltransferase (ChAT)
72
What protein transports ACh into storage vesicles?
Vesicular Cholinergic Transporter Protein
73
What enzyme is involved in metabolising Acetylcholine?
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
74
What are the two Cholinergic receptors?
1. Muscarinic (Protein)
2. Nicotinic (Ion Channel)
75
What enzyme converts Tyrosine to L-DOPA?
Tyrosine Hydroxylase
76
What enzyme converts L-DOPA into Dopamine?
DOPA Decarboxylase
77
What protein transports Dopamine to storage vesicles?
VMAT-2
78
What enzyme converts Dopamine to Noradrenaline?
Dopamine-β-Hydroxylase (DBH)
79
What enzyme converts Noradrenaline to Adrenaline?
Phenylethanolamine-N-Methyltransferase (PNMT)
80
Which enzymes metabolise Catecholamines after neurotransmission?
1. Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)
2. Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT)
81
What are the Catecholamine receptors?
1. Adrenoceptors (NA and Adr)
2. Dopamine Receptors (DA)
82
What enzyme converts Tryptophan into 5-HTP?
Trytophan Hydroxylase
83
Which enzyme converts 5-HTP into Serotonin (5-HT)?
Aromatic Amino Acid Decarboxylase
84
Which protein facilitates the reuptake of Serotonin into the presynaptic neuron after neurotrasmission?
SERT
(Na+ and Energy dependent)
85
Which enzyme metabolises Serotonin?
MAO
86
Which of the Serotonin (5-HT) receptors is Ionotropic?
5-HT3
87
Which enzymes converts Histidine into Histamine?
Histidine Decarboxylase
88
Which TWO enzymes metabolise Histamine?
1. Histamine N-Methyltransferase
2. MAO
89
What type of receptors does Glutamate act on?
Ionotropic AND Metabotropic receptors
90
Which enzyme converts Glutamate to GABA?
Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase (GAD)
91
Is Glycine an Excitatory or Inhibitory neurotransmitter?
Inhibitory
92
What type of receptor does Glycine act at?
Ionotropic
(co-factor at the NMDA glutmate receptor)
93
What type of receptor do Neuropeptides act at?
Metabotropic
(long-lasting effects)
94
What are the Psychomotor Stimulants?
* Cocaine
* Amphetamine
* Methylphenidate (Ritalin)
* Nicotine
* Caffeine
95
What are the Opitates?
* Morphine
* Heroin
* Codeine
* Hydrocodone (Vicodin)
96
What are the Depressants / Sedatives?
* Alcohol
* Barbiturates
* Benzodiazepines
* γ-Hydoxybutyrate (GHB)
97
What are the Dissociative Anaesthetics?
* Phencyclidine (PCP)
* Ketamine
98
What are the Designer Drugs?
* MDMA
* Inhalants / Solvents
99
How do psychoactive drugs work?
* Increasing / Decreasing postsynaptic transmission
* Altering NT levels such as Dopamine or Serotonin
* Mimic stimulation provided by the sympathetic nervous system
100
How does the Basal Ganglia play a role in drug use?
* Drugs over-activate the reward circuit, producing euphoria
* Circuit adapts with repeated drug use and sensitivity is reduced
* Diminished sensitivity makes it hard to feel pleasure from anything besides the drug causing desensitisaton / tolerance
101
How does the Amygdala play a role in drug use?
* Plays a key role in anxiety which characterises withdrawal
* Withdrawal causes drug seeking behaviour
* Circuit becomes increasingly sensitive with increased drug use
102
How does the Prefrontal Cortex play a role in drug use?
* Exerts self-control over impulses
* Shifting balance between circuits of PFC, Basal Ganglia, and Amygdala drives drug seeking behaviour and reduced impulse control
103
What is the Cycle of Addiction?
1. Positively reinforeced by drug euphoria
2. Negatively reinforced by withdrawal, craving, hedonic dysregulation
3. Drug related cues and stress increase craving, and loss of control may stem from cortical dysfunction
104
What is the mode of action for Psychomotor Stimulants?
Interacts with dopamine transporter (DAT) to elevate extracellular dopamine levels
105
What is the mode of action for Opiates, Ethanol and Cannabinoids?
Decrease GABA transmission in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), dishibiting dopamine neurons
106
What are the effects of Cocaine on Dopamine?
Reduced dopamine (DA) uptake from synapse
107
What are the effects of Amphetamines on Dopamine?
* Reduced DA uptake
* Increase DA release
108
What are the effects of Nicotine on Dopamine?
Increased DA release
109
What does Cocaine do in the synapse?
* Binds to dopamine reuptake transporters on presynaptic dopaminergic neurons
* Inhibits degredation of dopamine
* Dopamine levels remain high
110
What does Amphetamine do in the synapse
* Binds to dopamine transporter and switches off mechanism to remove dopamine from nerve terminal
* Binds to presynaptic membrane and stimulates release of dopamine
* Binds to MAO in nerve terminal which prevents degradation of dopamine
* On noradrenergic neurons, it induces the release of noradrenaline and inhibits reuptake
111
What does Caffeine do in the synapse
Adenosine receptor antagonist
112
What does Heroin do in the synapse
* Converted to morphine
* Morphine binds to opiate receptors
* Inhibits release of GABA leading to an increase in Dopamine
113
What does Amphetamine do in the brain?
Depression of inhibitory GABA control mechanisms at low doses
114
Where do drugs of abuse primarily modify the action of Dopamine in the brain?
Nucleus Accumbens (NAc) and the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
"The Reward Pathway"
115
What is the name of the pigment in Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells (pRGCs) that is sensitive to blue light?
Melanopsin (OPN4)
116
What TWO mental disorders can lack of sleep exacerbate?
1. Bipolar Disorder
2. Schizophrenia
117
Which dietary hormone does sleep disruption increase?
Ghrelin
(weight gain)
118
Where do Taste Receptor Cells synapse?
Synapse with Gustatory Afferent Neurons
119
What are Microvilli?
Project into the taste pore on the surface of the tongue
120
Which THREE cranial nerves connect to the tongue?
1. Facial (CN VII) - anterior 2/3
2. Glossopharyngeal (CN IX) - posterior 1/3
3. Vagus (CN X) - soft palate, pharynx, epiglottis
121
What is the Central Taste Pathway?
1. Afferents from tongue and epiglottis
2. Gustatory nucleus in the medulla
3. Left ventral posterior medial (VPM) nucleus of thalamus
4. Primary gustatory cortex
122
Where do olfactory receptor cells synapse with second order olfactory neurons?
Within Glomerulus inside the Olfactory Bulb
123
What is the Central Olfactory Pathway?
1. Axons of the olfactory tract branch and project to the olfactory cortex
2. Axons project to other brain regions through pathways that synapse in the thalamus
124
What structures make up the Photreceptor Layer?
Rods (light) and Cones (colour)
* synapse with bipolar cells which the synapse with ganglion cells
125
What is the Central Vision Pathway?
1. Axons project to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus
2. For each LGN, axons project to the visual cortex of the occipital lobe on that side
126
What is the function of the Outer Ear?
* Pinna - captures sound
* Auditory Canal - passageway
* Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum) - separates outer and middle ear
127
What is the function of the Middle Ear?
* Air filled chamber
* Ossicles
* Transmits sound vibrations from outer to inner ear
128
What is the function of the Inner Ear?
* Oval window
* Cochlea - sensation of hearing
* Vestibular System - sensation of equilibrium
129
What is the structure of the Cochlea?
Three fluid-filled chambers:
* Scala Vestibuli
* Scala Tympani
* Scala Media (cochlear duct)
130
Where is sound detected?
Detected by the organ of Corti which lies on the basilar membrane on the cochlear duct
131
Where do Hair Cells synapse?
In contact with overlaying tectorial membrane and synapse with neurons in the spiral ganglion
132
What is the Auditory Pathway?
1. Cochlea (Inner Ear)
2. Medulla (Brainstem)
3. Midbrain (Brainstem)
4. Thalamus
5. Auditory Cortex
133
What are Activity-Independent processes in Neurodevelopment?
"Hard wired" pre-determined by genes in a neuron
* Neuronal differentiation
* Migration
* Axon growth
134
What are Activity Dependent processes in Neurodevelopment?
Occur later, after a neuron has formed connections
135
What causes Down's Syndrome?
Reduced neurogenesis and Increased astrogliogenesis
136
What is Chorioamnionitis?
Causes fetal inflammation and injury to the immature brain
137
What are Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)?
Pluripotent stem cells that can be generated directly from adult cells
138
What receptors are involved in sending information along the ANS?
* Chemoreceptors
* Baroreceptors
* Osmoreceptors
* Pain receptors
139
Which brain structure provides control over the ANS?
Hypothalamus
140
What are Preganglionic neurons?
* cell body WITHIN the CNS
* synapse in ganglia
* myelinated
141
What are Postganglionic fibres?
* cell bodies OUTSIDE the CNS
* synapse on target organ
* unmyelinated
142
What neurotransmitter is released by all Preganglionic fibres?
Acetylcholine (ACh)
143
What neurotransmitter is released by Postganglionic Parasympathetic fibres?
Acetylcholine (ACh)
144
What neurotransmitter is released by Postganglionic Sympathetic fibres?
Noradrenaline (NA)
145
What part of the spinal cord are the cell bodies for Sympathetic Preganglionic neurons located?
Intermediolateral cell column of the thoracolumbar region
146
What structure do Sympathetic Preganglionic neurons synapse at?
The Sympathetic Chain Ganglia (T1 to L2)
147
Which cranial nerves are involved in the Parasympathetic system?
Oculomotor (CN III)
Facial (CN VII)
Glossopharyngeal (CN IX)
Vagus (CN X)
148
Where are the cell bodies of the Parasympathetic Preganglionic neurons located?
* Close to the target organ
* Four of the twelve cranial nerves
* S2 to S4
149
How does the brain communicate with the peripheral blood circulation?
Via the Circumventricular Organs (CVOs)
*chemosensitive areas surrounding ventricles
* lack BBB
* important for feedback regulation
150
What are the THREE parts of the Hypothalamus?
* Periventricular (nearest the 3rd ventricle)
* Medial
* Lateral
151
What are the functions of the Afferents to the Hypothalamus?
Circulatory INPUTS
152
What are the functions of the Efferents from the Hypothalamus?
Circulatory OUTPUTS
153
Which part of the Pituitary has Neural Projections?
Posterior (Magnocellular Neurons)
154
Which part of the Pituitary contains the Circulatory Link?
Anterior (Parvocellular Neurons)
155
Where does the Magnocellular system originate?
* In the Supraoptic and Paraventricular Nuclei of the Hypothalamus
* Produces Vasopressin (ADH) and Oxytocin
156
What structures do the hormones travel down to the Posterior Pituitary?
Median Eminence and Infundibulum
157
What is the mechanism of the Parvicellular System?
* Hypothalamus secretes Releasing (RH) or Release-Inhibiting (RIH) hormones in the Median Eminence
* RH / RIH travel into Anterior Pituitary to increase or decrease hormone production
* Hormones released into circulation
158
What are the Hypophysiotropic hormones?
* Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
* Growth hormone (GH)
* Corticotrophin (ACTH)
* Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
* Luteinising hormone (LH)
* Prolactin
159
What is the Endocrine System for Metabolism?
Brain -> Pituitary -> Thyroid
160
What is the Endocrine System for Growth?
Brain -> Pituitary -> Liver / Bone / Muscle
161
What is the Endocrine System for Stress?
Brain -> Pituitary -> Adrenals
162
What is the Endocrine System for Reproduction?
Brain -> Pituitary -> Gonads
163
What is the Endocrine System for Lactation?
Brain -> Pituitary -> Mammaries
164
What is the mechanism of the Stress Response?
* Periventricular hypothalamus secretes CRH into portal circulation
* Anterior pituitary secretes ACTH into peripheral circulation
* ACTH stimulates cortisol from adrenal cortex
165
What was the James-Lange theory of emotion?
Emotion experienced in response to physiological changes
166
What was the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?
Emotions occur independent of emotion expression
167
What is the Papez Circuit?
* Emotion system linking Cortex with Hypothalamus
* Neocortex -> Cingulate Cortex -> Hippocampus (connected by Fornix) -> Hypothalamus -> Anterior Thalamus
168
What are the effects of Amygdala lesions in humans?
Inability to recognise fear in facial expressions
169
What are the nuclei of the Amygdala and their functions?
* Corticomedial Nuclei
* Central Nucleus - receives olfactory afferents
* Basolateral Nucleus - receives visual, auditory, gustatory and tactile afferents
170
Which hormones and neurotransmitters regulate aggression?
* Testosterone - increased levels increase aggression
* Serotonin - decreased levels increase aggression
171
Which brain areas are activated when music is considered pleasant?
* Amygdala
* Hippocampus
* Ventral Striatum (NAcc)
172
What is the Chill Response when listening to music?
A feeling of intense euphoria
*significant increase in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in the Ventral Striatum
173
What is the association between Dopamine release and the Chill Response?
* Dopamine released in NAcc during Chills - Hedonic
* Dopamine released in Caudate prior to Chills - Anticipation
174
Which brain areas are best predictors of music reward value?
Nucleus Accumbens and Auditory Cortices
175
Which parts of the ANS decrease during the chills response?
* Blood Volume Pulse (BVP)
* Temperature
176
What are the TWO types of Non-Associative learning?
* Habituation - decreased response to repeated mild stimulus
* Sensitisation - intensified response following one intense stimulus
177
What are the TWO types of Associative learning?
* Classical Conditioning - learning a stimulus has an outcome
* Operant Conditioning - learning own behaviour has consequences
178
What is Declaritive Memory?
Semantic (facts) and Episodic (events)
179
What is Non-Declaritive Memory?
Procedural (skills and habits) and unconscious (automatic)
180
What is the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test?
* A test for Prefrontal Cortical Dysfunction
* Relies on working memory
181
What are the THREE steps to forming memories?
1. Encoding
2. Consolidation
3. Retrieval
182
What was Karl Lashley's theory on memory?
All cortical areas contribute equally to learning and memory (size of brain area rather than location)
183
What was Donald Hebb's theory on memory?
Memory is stored across the cerebral cortex as a network of neurons (Cell Assemblies)
"Neurons that fire together, wire together"
184
What is the Medial Temporal Lobe important for in memory?
Consolidation and storage of declarative memories
185
What TWO enzymes cut Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) to create β-Amyloid?
β and γ Secretase
186
The loss of which neurotransmitters is thought to lead to Alzheimer's?
Acetylcholine, Serotonin, Glutamate, and Noradrenaline
187
Which genes are thought to play a role in developing Alzheimer's?
* ApoE 4
* APP
* Presenilin 1
* Tau
188
What are some current drug treatments for Alzheimer's?
* Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors - increases Acetylcholine synthesis
* Memantine - blocks high levels of Glutamate
189
What is the pathology of Parkinson's?
Loss of dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons
* substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc)
* caudate and putamen (striatum)
190
What protein do Lewy bodies contain?
α-synuclein
191
What are some current drug treatments for Parkinson's?
* Dopamine replacement - synthetic Dopamine
* Dopamine agonist - mimics affects of Dopamine
* MAO Inhibitors - stops metabolism of Dopamine
192
What type of disorder is Huntington's?
Inherited trinucleotide repeat disorder
193
What chromosome does the Huntingtin gene sit on?
Chromosome 4
194
How many CAG repeats will cause Huntington's?
Above 36
195
What brain regions are affected by Huntington's?
Striatum, Basal Ganglia, Cerebral Cortex
196
Which neurotransmitter pathways are affected by Huntington's?
Degeneration of striatal GABAergic neurons can cause hyperactivity in dopaminergic systems
197
What drug treatments can be used for Huntington's?
* Tetrabenazine - reduces dopamine activity
* Baclofen - GABA receptor agonist
198
Who coined the term "Plasticity"?
Jerzy Konorski
199
Who identified the two Critical Periods?
Michael Merzenich
200
What are the structural brain changes at Adolescence?
* Synaptogenesis
* Synpatic Pruning - reduced gray matter volume
* White mater volume increases
201
What are the functional changes in the Adolescent brain?
* Greater activation of the nucleus accumbens during reward processing
* Greater activation of the amygdala in response to emotional stimuli
202
How does exercise affect the Adolescent brain?
* Enhances dendrite complexity
* Increases neuroplasticity genes
