Exam Revision Flashcards
Great circles
except on direct
any point on earth
- From any point to point on the earth there is a great circle that is the quickest route to it (except if they are on the direct opposite ends of the earth where there are infinite great circles)
Latitude is measured along
the x-axis or horizontally
whereas longitude is measured
vertically or on the y axis
lines of latitude and longitude measured in
degrees (o) minutes (‘) and seconds (“)
where there is
how many mins in degree
60 minutes in a degree and 60 seconds in a minute
Wind Velocity
Is the speed and direction of the wind in knots (direction is named from where it is coming from)
Directions
Are expressed in 3 figures (e.g. north = 000)
Heading
Is the direction the aircraft is pointed towards
Track
Is the direction the aircraft is actually taking
Flight Planned Track
Is the path that the pilot intends to take over the ground
Track Made Good
The actual path travelled by the aircraft over the ground
Drift
Is the angle between heading and track made good
Track Error
The angle between heading and track made good
Track To Intercept
Is the track you need to get back onto the track
Closed angle
Is the angle between the original planned track and the new track to intercept
True airspeed
The speed of the aircraft relative to the air (e.g. like a headwind takes TAS down)
Indicated airspeed
The speed which the plane is traveling displayed on the airspeed indicator
Calibrated airspeed
is IAS corrected for instrumentation/ position errors (corrects any error created by the aircraft deflecting air)
ground speed
The speed of the aircraft relative to the ground
Load factor formula
- Load factor = 1 / COS (angle of bank)
New stall speed formula
old stall speed * (load factor)^1/2
- stalled spin recovery (P.A.R.E)
o (P) ower idle,
o (A) ilerons neutral,
o (R) udder opposite the spin, and
o [E] levator back.
- spiral dive recovery
o reducing power (to idle),
o leveling the wings with ailerons,
o gradually pulling up on the elevator while adding power if necessary.
Lateral stability
- high winged aircrafts:
- In a high wing winged aircraft
o CoG of the fuselage will counteract the direction of a roll bringing the plane back to wings level - In a low wing aircraft
o COG of fuselage will assist the plane in direction of the roll, will put the plane into a steeper bank
Lateral stability
- For an aircraft with dihedral wings:
The three steps
higher AOA
sideslip RAF
- Due to sideslip of relative airflow due to the roll, the lower wing will experience a higher angle of attack
- The higher angle of attack will automatically produce more lift in the lower wing than the higher wing
- The lower wing will lift and will want to bring the aircraft back to level flight.
Lateral stability
swept back wings
- When the aircraft rolls, sideslip of relative airflow will mean the lower wing’s leading edge will be close to 90o to relative airflow compared to the upper wing which will have a far less direct angle of airflow to leading edge. The more direct airflow will lead to more lift created on the lower wing, bringing the aircraft back to wings level. Chord wise flow is most effective flow
- Because of the sideslip the front section of the fuselage will block some airflow over the upper wing, reducing it’s effective span for creating lift. The lower wing will experience more lift (because of more span exposed to airflow) creating more lift bringing the wings back to level flight.
Directional stability
- Drag
fuselage blocks area
- When an aircraft yaws in one direction, the forward wing opposite the direction of yaw offers more frontal area to the relative airflow, creating more drag. The backward wing, blocked by some of the fuselage experiences less frontal area to the airflow and experiences less drag. The wing with more drag has an automatic effect of yawing the aircraft back to centre
Directional stability
what does it mean
- When a directionally stable aircraft yaws it will return to straight ahead flight without any use of the rudder
Directional stability
vertical fin
moment
surface area
- The fin of an aircraft has an inbuilt ability to recover from a yawing disturbance about the normal axis. The moment of the vertical fin, due to large surface area and moment due to the large distance between it and the centre of gravity, acts to restore the nose to its original position
Longitudinal stability
Horizontal stabilizer
airflow
lift tail
greatest contributer
- The greatest contributor to restoring longitudinal stability is by the horizontal stabiliser. As an aircraft pitches upward, the airflow strikes the HS which are located behind the CoG. The airflow causes lift in the horizontal stabilisers, which lift the tail of the aircraft subsequently returning the nose of the aircraft to level (resisting the climb)… the same works in the opposite direction when the aircraft is descending.
Longitudinal stability
horizontal stabilisers having different angle of incidences
added affect
Longitudinal dihedral involves wings and horizontal stabilisers having different angle of incidences. By mounting the horizontal stabilisers at a higher angle of incidence, any change of angle of attack in the wing will have an added effect by the HS. Because of the position of the HS at the rear of the aircraft, any lift experienced by it will cause the tail to rise and nose of aircraft to fall, hence increasing longitudinal stability
Longitudinal stability
CoG
- If the CoG is moved that leads to increased longitudinal stability. If moved Rearward CoG leads to decreased longitudinal stability. Pilot can arrange any cargo or weights within the aircraft to change position of CoG to suit.
Wheelbarrowing
Causes of wheelbarrowing:
- Only occurs in aircraft with tricycle undercarriage
- Landing too fast
- Trying to force the front wheel onto the ground after landing causing too much load to - be on front wheel and not enough on the main wheels (rear)
Wheelbarrowing
Problems associated:
- Loss of directional control of aircraft
- Violent swerving as the aircraft pivots around the front wheel
- Can cause ground strike of wing in direction of the wheelbarrowing or collapse of main wheel undercarriage due to excessive side loading.
Groundlooping
What aicraft does it occur in
- Only occurs in aircraft with tailwheel undercarriage
Groundlooping
brakes applied
crosswind
overtake main wheels
- Caused when aircraft lands in crosswind and tailwheel touches down sidewards of the aircraft… then the pilot applies brakes. Because tailwheel aircraft has CoG behind main wheels, the CoG and tailwheel can overtake the main wheels from the side, causing loss of directional control and wing strike.
- After aircraft has landed but is still rolling at speed on runway, if pilot incorrectly applies brakes to one wheel only, can cause tail of aircraft to swing out. CoG of aircraft and tail wheel can overtake main wheels from the side causing wing strike.
Servo tab
- Used due to high speed aircrafts as its to hard to pull and push control to get control so a variation is made in the trim tab in the opposite direction
Anti servo tab
Used with aircrafts that are to sensitive with the controls so the servo tab moves in the same directions as the controls
Trim tabs
manually
balanced
fixed
- Fixed tabs need to be positioned manually by hand when the aircraft is on the ground before take-off.
- A fixed tab on a single engine aircraft will normally be positioned so that the aircraft is balanced in cruise flight.
- The trim tab moves in the opposite direction to the elevator, hence keeping the effect of the position of the elevator without the pilot having to feel the force of air against the control column.
Spoilers or lift dumpers
deployed individually or together
o Surfaces hinged to rise on the upper surface of the wing to reduce lift and create drag.
o If spoilers are deployed simultaneously, the loss of lift is symmetrical and aircraft decelerates and sinks
o If deployed individually, can be used as ailerons or aids for rolling the aircraft.
Spoilers or lift dumpers
Who uses them and for what reason?
o Glider pilots use spoilers or lift dumpers if they are approaching touchdown and they think they are going to overshoot the runway
o Airliners use spoilers to ensure the aircraft sits firmly on the runway after touchdown.
Anhedral
- In summary, anhedral wings make the aircraft less laterally stable, or makes it easier for the pilot to roll the aircraft.
- In a fighter jet, this is desirable so the aircraft can perform high performance manoeuvres
- For a heavy lift cargo plane, most of the weight is located in fuselage, creating a pendulum effect to resist rolling motions. They may be so fuselage heavy that the aircraft cannot roll or bank, hence the anhedral wings help to maintain the aircraft in a roll.
Speed breaks
- are surfaces that are deployed to create drag and cause rapid deacceleration in the aircraft.
Stabilators
- Both horizontal stabilators and elevator.
- In charge of pitching
- High-speed aircraft, like an F-15 almost always have a stabilator because the elevator’s effectiveness at transonic speeds.
Tailerons
Used together by joystick or seperately
The fore and aft movement of the pilot’s joystick causes the tailerons to operate together, which in turn rotates the aircraft around it’s lateral axis, making them act like elevators and pitching the nose up and down
- If the control column is moved sideways, the tailerons move differentially, with one taileron going up while the other going down. This causes the aircraft to rotates about its longitudinal axis, acting like ailerons to roll the aircraft.
Ruddervator
- Combination of rudder and elevator.
- In v shape and move up and down together to effect pitching and both move either the left or right simultaneously to cause yaw
Elevons
- Both elevons move up and down together to control pitch
- The elevons move in opposite directions to control roll
- They combine these movements to conduct manoeuvres such as a climbing turn.
Flaperons
- Flight control surface that combines flaps and ailerons.
- Flaperons respond to roll commands via the yoke or joystick in the same way as normal ailerons
- They can also be lowered to function as a dedicated set of flaps.
- Advantage of using flaperons instead of dedicated ailerons and flaps is a reduction in weight.
- Flaperons are a feature that are also common on aircraft designed for short take off and landing.
Canards
- A small wing mounted either side of the nose of the aircraft
- , it must be set at an angle of incidence that is greater than the wings of the aircraft
- In an aircraft where a fixed canard is placed in front of the wing and C of G of the aircraft, if the wing stalls before the canard, the aircraft’s CoG will drop the wing and aircraft down pitching the nose up and further stalling the aircraft which can lead to an unrecoverable position.
- A canard can serve two purposes;
o it can improve aircraft control, which you often see on combat aircraft. It also can contribute to lift, replacing the horizontal stabilizer and – theoretically - reducing overall drag.
High lift devices
- Vortex generators
o are small plates about an inch deep standing on edge in a row spanwise along the wing.
o They are placed at an angle of attack and (like a wing airfoil section) generate vortices.
o These tend to prevent or delay the breakaway of the boundary layer by re-energizing it.
Flaps
o Decreases airspeed.
o Decreases distance to land.
o Increases angle of descent
o Increases rate of descent
o Increase forward visibility at low speeds.
o Located on the Trailing edge of a plane.
o Different types:
Plain Flap
Split Flap
Slotted flap
Fowler Flap
Double Slotted Fowler Flap
- Slots
o If you’re trying to decrease take off and landing distance, generating lots of lift at slow speeds is key
o Slots delay the stall by increasing the stalling angle of attack (called the critical angle of attack), often past 22 degrees.
o In aerodynamics, everything comes with a penalty. In a slot’s case, it’s drag, capping your airplane’s cruise speed and efficiency. Since slots are always open, the drag is always there at cruise speeds
- Slats
o To solve the problem of slots, the retractable slat is used.
o Slats are extendable, high lift devices on the leading edge of the wings of some fixed wing aircraft.
o Their purpose is to increase lift during low speed operations such as take off, initial climb, approach and landing.
o They accomplish this by increasing both the surface area and the camber of the wing by deploying outwards and drooping downwards from the leading edge.
o Slats normally have several possible positions and extend progressively in concert with flap extension.
Climb with power:
- In a climb at constant velocity, weight which acts towards the centre of the earth.
- The component of W which acts against lift is WL.
- Weight force also has a drag component represented by WD which acts against Thrust.
- For the aircraft to be in constant velocity, all forces must be in equilibrium.
- L = WL
- T = D + WD
- In plain English, it means Thrust (T) must equal Drag (D) + the Drag component of Weight (WD)
Glide descent
- In a glide descent, thrust (T) is non-existent as engine is set to idle.
- There is still a force counteracting Drag (D), otherwise the aircraft would be moving back up towards the sky which doesn’t make much physical sense.
- The force that counteracts Drag is a component of Weight shown by WD.
- For an aircraft to be gliding at constant velocity, all forces must be in equilibrium.
- L = WL and.
- D = WD
Decent with power
- When an aircraft applies power during descent, thrust (T) is increased.
- When T is increased, more air flows over the wings of the aircraft.
- This will increase Lift (L).
- If the nose of the aircraft is held down with power to keep airspeed constant, the increase in T will result in the aircraft rising due to increased L.
- Very important to know this when learning how to land an aircraft.
Turn/load factor
- Angle of bank (AoB) = angle that you turn
- When the aircraft is banked, the component of Lift (LW) is less than total lift, so W > LW and the aircraft will descend.
- During a turn, back pressure must be applied to keep the aircraft level. Backpressure creates additional lift during the turn.
- To keep an aircraft from losing altitude during a turn, back pressure must be applied. The amount of force due to this backpressure is known as the ‘load factor’ which you will explore later. During a level turn, this is the amount of extra weight a person will feel in the aircraft.
- LR can be worked out with the following formula:
- Cos θ = LW / LR (how many G’s you are facing and LW is 1) e.g., AoB is 30 ° so Cos 30° = 1/ LR which Is also LR = 1/Cos 30° that means LR = 1.15 G’s
Induced airflow
- is the air that is sucked in through the top of the rotor blades and blown out the bottom. Like a ceiling fan.
- Increased induced airflow reduces angle of attack
- Decreased Angle of attack = decreased lift
- Just like an aircraft, if angle of attack is increased too much, the rotary blade will also stall
Coning:
- the upward flexing of rotor blades resulting from the forces of lift distributed along the blades. The tips of the blades produce more lifting force than the roots.
- As the rotor disc starts to take up the weight of the fuselage, the disc begins to cone.
- This condition exists throughout all consequent phases of flight with some slight variations in extent due to changes in real and apparent weight or rotor speed.
Factors that can increase coning and cause a high coning angle include:
- The RPM of the rotors (Low rotor RPM increases coning)
- The weight of the vehicle (High gross weight increases coning)
- Any G-forces experienced during flight (High G manoeuvres increases coning)
Excessive coning results in:
- Undesirable stresses on the blades
- A decrease in effective disk area and hence lift. Tip path plane decreases
- An overall decrease in lift available
- If the coning angle becomes too great, there is no chance of recovery, the blades fold upwards and you die.
Helicopter controls
3 ones what do they do
- Collective pitch lever which causes the helicopter to rise and descend.
o Changes angle of pitch in rotor blades - The cyclic control which causes the helicopter to tilt in desired direction.
o Control the tilt of the rotor blades. - The tail rotor pedals which cause the helicopter to yaw.
o Change the pitch of the tail rotor and the thrust it produces
Swash plate
- The swash plate assembly is the important link between the rotating rotor and both the cyclic pitch control and the collective pitch lever.
o It consists of two elements - The stationary element
- The rotating element
o It is usually connected to three hydraulic rams which, when each is extended by the same amount, will keep the plate horizontal.
o When extended by different amounts, they will cause the plate to tilt.
There are 3 types of movement the rotor blades can do
Feathering
Flapping
Lead Lag
Feathering what axis
Longitudinal axis
Flapping what axis
normal axis (vertical)
Lead lag what axis
lateral axis
Different types of rotor head
Fully articulated rotor head
Teetering Rotor Head (Semi-rigid Rotor System)
Rigid Rotor Head
Fully articulated rotor head
- In a fully articulated head, each blade is attached to the rotor mast through a horizontal hinge (flapping hinge)
- There are other hinges to allow for the other three blade movements (lead/lag and feathering) but the horizontal hinge is to allow flapping
- The design allows each blade to flap independently
Teetering Rotor Head (Semi-rigid Rotor System)
- In a two-rotor blade system, the two blades share the one hinge on top of the mast.
- In this case the blades do not flap independently, but as a single unit.
- One side flaps up as the other flaps down.
- The other hinges to allow lead/lag and feathering are still present on the teetering rotor head.
Mast Bumping (Teetering Head)
- Mast bumping is the result of excessive rotor flapping with a teetering head design.
- Each rotor system has a maximum flapping angle. If flapping exceeds the design value, the static stop (the teetering head) will contact the mast, which can cause catastrophic consequences.
- Excessive flapping can occur due to severe turbulence or inappropriate control inputs. For example Low-G flight.
Rigid Rotor Head
- In this system the blade roots are rigidly attached to the rotor hub.
- Rigid rotor systems behave like fully articulated systems through aerodynamics, but lack flapping or lead/lag hinges
- Instead the blades accommodate these motions by bending.
- They cannot flap or lead/lag but they can be feathered
- Advantaged of a rigid head is for high performance helicopters. There is instant feedback from the controls to the chopper
Tail rotor
- or anti-torque rotor is designed to produce a force acting sideways and so prevent the fuselage from rotating in the opposite direction to the main rotor.
- The tail rotor gearbox provides a right-angle drive for the tail rotor and may also include gearing to adjust output to an optimum tail rotor RPM (usually around 2 times that of the main rotor)
Other tail rotor designs
- Coaxial Rotors a pair of helicopter rotors mounted one above the other on concentric shafts, with the same axis of rotation, but turning in opposite directions (contra-rotating).
- Tandem rotors at longitudinal extremities: Tandem rotor helicopters have two large horizontal rotor assemblies mounted one in front of the other. Currently this configuration is mainly used for large cargo helicopters.
Drawings of different types of flight on helicopters
Vertical accent
- The rotor thrust upwards is greater than the weight and drag acting downwards creating the aircraft to ascend upwards.
Drawings of different types of flight on helicopters
Vertical decent
- The rotor thrust upwards is less than the weight and drag acting downwards creating the aircraft to descend downwards.
Drawings of different types of flight on helicopters
Horizontal flight
- A helicopter can move horizontally forward, backwards and sideways. In order to do so the rotor disk is tilted in the desired direction of travel
- It works just like an aeroplane with the vectors created as seen in the image on the right
Rotary aerodynamics
Gyroscopic Precession
- GP means a force applied to a gyro (rotor disc) will produce an effect up to 90 degrees forward of the applied force.
- Eg. If a rotor is spinning ACW, and you want to tilt it forward, the force on the disc required to do this needs to be applied up to 90 degs beforehand.
- Helicopter controls are calibrated so the pilot does not need to think about it. Pilot just pushes forward if wants to tilt the disc forward and the swash plate is calibrated to make the correct movements to the rotor.
Rotary aerodynamics
Tail Rotor Drift (Translating Tendency)
- If a rotor spins ACW, fuselage of helicopter will spin CW (Newton’s 3rd law. Think of drill bit getting stuck)
- This CW motion will also cause a sideways force to the right, shown at the rotor mast as drift.
- Tail rotor provides anti-torque for fuselage which also causes a net sideways force to the right, show at the tail section.
- These two forces provide an overall net movement of the helicopter to the right.
Rotary aerodynamics
Tail Rotor Drift (Translating Tendency)
Pilot actions to counteract:
- Pilot uses cyclic movement in opposite direction to TRD
Rotary aerodynamics
Dissymmetry of Lift [Retreating Blade Stall]
- Relative airflow is different on advancing side and retreating side of rotor disc
- Compensated automatically in rotor system through flapping. Retreating side flaps down and advancing side flaps up.
- This flapping causes relative airflow to be different on either side and consequently angle of attacks are different on either side.
- Retreating side flaps down. Causes an increase in AoA, creating more lift, causing blade to flap back up.
- Advancing side flaps up. Causes a decrease in AoA, diminishing lift, causing blade to flap back down.
- This is called flapping to equality.
Dissymmetry of Lift [Retreating Blade Stall]
If flapping to equality was not allowed
- If flapping wasn’t allowed through the rotor system, DOL would cause FLAPBACK. The advancing side would produce more lift. Gyroscopic precession would transfer this increase in lift to the front of the helicopter (approx. 90 degs forward) causing uncontrollable rise to the nose…. Could be fatal.
Dissymmetry of Lift [Retreating Blade Stall]
Pilot Actions
- As a helicopter moves forward, constant force must be applied to keep the disc tilted forward.
- As helicopter moves faster, disc tilts more, causing retreating side to continually experience higher AoA than advancing side
- Eventually AoA will exceed critical angle, causing retreating blade stall. The stall will be experienced at the rear of helicopter due to GP, causing severe vibration and pitching up!!
- This is the cause of airspeed limitations on a helicopter.
Retreating Blade Stall
- As a helicopter moves forward, a force must be applied constantly to keep the disc tilted forwards as well as to compensate for any residual asymmetric lift.
- The angle of attack on the retreating blade is always larger than the advancing blade because of the tilt.
- As the helicopter moves faster, because of dissymmetry of lift, the retreating blade flaps down even further in the slower relative airflow and, angle of attack is subsequently increased… This happens to the point where angle of attack on the retreating side may reach critical angle at which point, the retreating blade will stall.
- When this occurs the helicopter will experience severe vibration and pitch up. It may also roll.
Transverse Flow Effect
- Air entering to rear of rotor is accelerated to higher speed than front, causing greater downwash to rear section.
- Greater downwash causes greater induced drag, reducing AoA to rear section
- Reduced AoA in rear diminishes lift production in rear section.
- GP causes this reduction in lift to be translated 90 degrees forward. (right side of rotor disc)
- In a helicopter with ACW rotor rotation, results in a right drift
Transverse Flow Effect
Pilot actions to correct:
- Pilot will use cyclic to counter effects of TFE
Effective Translational Lift (ETL)
- Stationary hover (0kts forward speed)
o Helicopter is operating in its own wingtip vortices, with tips of the blade ineffective at producing lift
Effective Translational Lift (ETL)
- Translational flight (moving from hover to forward flight)
o Rotor tilted forwards
o There is still some wingtip vortices but they are starting to get pushed away from rotor system by forward airflow causing rotor disc to receive greater efficiency.
o Bonus in lift from this. Same lift can be achieved with less engine power
Effective Translational Lift (ETL)
- ETL (12-40 kts airspeed)
o Helicopter has moved out of its wingtip vortices and into ETL
o Greater Lift can be produced with less power until 40 kts
o After 40 kts parasite drag from the fueslage negates ETL
Coriolis Effect
- Coriolis effect states that due to conservation of angular momentum, coning will cause the centre of mass of the blades to come closer to the mast, increases rotor RPM.
- This increase in RPM, if not managed could overspeed the engine and cause damage to rotor and engine.
Coriolis Effect
How semi rigid combats
- In semi rigid rotor systems, automatic flapping down of one side and up on the other diminishes the effect of Coriolis and avoids over-RPM of engine
Coriolis Effect
How fully articulated combats
- In a fully articulated head with more than 2 blades, a drag hinge is used to allow backward and forward movement of blade
- Retreating blade (flaps down, moves slower) lags, advancing blade (flaps up, moves faster) leads
Ground effect
- When operating away from the ground, helicopter experiences recirculation of air at the blade tips
- Similar to wingtip vortices in FW aircraft
- This recirculation makes an area around the blade tip ineffective at producing lift.
- When in ground effect (within a rotor span from ground) recirculation is disrupted and not allowed to flow back into the rotor system, so less of the blade tip is affected.
- This results in bonus lift production IGE. Helicopters can seem to carry heavier loads when IGE and use less power to produce same amount of lift as when OGE.
Know the dangers of ground effect:
- If helicopter is operating IGE on top of a peak and accidentally drifts off the peak or ledge and ends up OGE, the helicopter will immediately lose lift.
- If lift is not restored by raising collective, the helicopter will sink and possible collide with terrain.
Auto-Rotation
state of flight
- Is the state of flight where rotor is driven by relative airflow rather than power of the engine.
- Must be noted that the tail rotor also needs to be turning during autorotation to provide some counter to the frictional forces in the gearbox which would otherwise induce the fuselage to turn in the same direction.
Autorotation
first step
- When an engine failure occurs at low airspeed, pilot is required to:
o Disengage the rotor system from the engine.
o Lower the collective pitch to reduce pitch of blades to a minimum, reducing torque
o Nose is pushed down to give an angle of glide and to provide some translational lift
Autorotation
second step
- As the helicopter descends, the air coming up through the rotor disc causes the blades to rotate, and as they do, progressively store more energy.
Autorotation third step
- When the ground approaches, the pilot:
o flares the helicopter in a similar manner to a normal landing and during this phase,
o the rotor will usually increase speed because of the flare.
o The final speed increase provides enough extra lift to arrest the helicopter’s descent.
Autorotation
4th step
- At this stage the helicopter has lost its forward kinetic energy and has no air flowing upwards to keep the rotor turning.
Autorotation
5th step
- As rotor speed decays, the helicopter settles on the ground, with the pilots last action:
o Extract the remaining lift from the rotor by increasing the collective pitch to its maximum.
o This increases the lift, but also increases the drag and the rotor quickly loses speed as the helicopter settles gently on the ground.
H-V Diagram Helicopters
- Published by manufacturer for their particular helicopter.
- Depicts the combinations of speed and altitude in which operation of the helicopter is unsafe should an autorotation become necessary.
- In the shaded regions, either height or the forward speed is too low to allow autorotation to be effected before the helicopter strikes the ground. These are the DEAD MAN ZONES
Threats
- External threats
where does it come from
examples
o Originate from the environment.
o Distractions from passengers
o Weather problems
o Heavy traffic
o System failures
- Internal threats
o Brought to the cockpit in the person of the pilot and crew.
o Pilot fatigue
o Pilot experience and personality
o Health and fitness
- Anticipated threats
o Would include such things as weather and heavy traffic or unfamiliar aerodromes.
Unexpected threats
o Would include such things as distractions from passengers, in-flight diversions and miss approaches.
- Latent threats
o Are not directly obvious to the pilot but are lurking in the background waiting for a particular set of circumstances. They include such things as a ‘user unfriendly’ work environment such as a poor cockpit design or instrument design characteristics and company policies that do not adequately address proper maintenance issues or pilot fatigue and optical illusions as sloping runways or ‘black hole’ approaches.
- Environmental threats
o Exist due to the operating environment.
o Weather such as thunderstorms, icing, wind
o Terrain about and below the aircraft
- Organisational
o Originate from deficiencies in the infrastructure and organization in which the aircraft is operating.
o Documentation errors
o Tour of duty problems
Errors
- Handling errors
o anything to do with actual manipulation of the aircraft controls.
o Rounding out too high or too late in landing
o failure to maintain height.
o Inappropriate use of power during approach
- Procedural errors
o Occur across whole spectrum of pilot experience. Often occur as consequence of external or internal threats such as time constraints, poor communication, distraction or poor-quality aerodrome markings or signage.
o failure to use written checklist for take-off or landing.
o failure to stop at holding point.
- Communication Errors:
o ambiguous or misinterpreted communication.
o Use of non-standard phraseology in case of radio communication
o Poor quality radio reception
o Over transmission of radio messages by third party
o Unfamiliar foreign accents or rapid speech
Undesired Aircraft States
- Handling states
o Aircraft control
o Placing aircraft in hazardous state
o Altitude, speed or track deviations
o Poor technique in flying
o Exceeding structural load
Undesired Aircraft States
- Navigation state
o Taxing too fast
o Wrong taxi way
Undesired Aircraft States
- Configuration state (FWFAG)
o F)laps config
o W)eights balances
o F)uel
o A)utopilot
o G)PS
Management
PERS
- Planning
o Flight planning
o Pre-flight briefing
Management
- Execution
PERS
o Measures taken during flight
o Monitoring engine, flight and navigation instruments
o Cross checking information to ensure its integrity
Management
PERS
- Review
o cope with unexpected contingencies which may arise during flight
o Evaluating and modifying
o Remaining alert
Management
PERS
- Systemic:
o anything built into the aircraft
o Stall warnings.
o System failures
ADF limitations
- Night effect
as the strength of the indirect skywaves is greater at night, errors are more common and of greater magnitude at night.
ADF limitations
- Costal refractions:
when moving parallel to a coastline, NDB radio waves may be refracted (bent) due to the different conducting and reflecting properties of land and water. This causes false bearing indications: the NDB always appears closer to the coastline that it actually is.
ADF limitations
- Thunderstorm effect:
thunderstorms generate considerable electromagnetic energy that may cause the ADF needle to swing from the direction of the received NDB signal to the direction of the centre of the electric storm
ADF limitations
- - Terrain effect:
NDB radio signal have greater range over water than over sandy or mountainous country where the range is considerably reduced.
ADF limitations
- Co-channel interference
If radio signals are received from other NDB’s operating on the same or adjacent frequencies to the NDB tuned, the ADF may give false bearing information due to mixing of the signals.
- Atmospheric pressure
is the force exerted on a given area.
- Pressure of 1013.2 hPa at sea level – 1 hPa per 30 feet in the lower atmosphere (up to about 5,000 feet).
ISA atmosphere conditions
Temprature
- Temperature of +15 °C - Temperature falls at a rate of 2 °C per 1,000 feet until the tropopause then constant at -57 °C.
- Tropopause
is a varying height across the globe and separates the troposphere and the stratosphere.
- Isobars
are the lines in weather reports that display the differential in pressures.
High pressure systems
o anticlockwise circulation.
o starts with cold air at high altitude which starts sinking.
o pressure at the surface rises (like pressure increases the further down in the ocean you go)
o Air in a high-pressure area compresses and warms as it descends.
o Clear day and stable conditions as no air rises
- ridge
elongated area of high pressure extending along the axis.
- Low pressure system
o often strong winds. Unstable conditions due to air rising.
o Warm air at the surface becomes less dense and rises.
o the air at the surface flows in to fill the space left by the rising air.
o a clockwise direction.
o If there is sufficient vapour present to form large clouds, showers and rain areas develop.
o Weather associated with low pressure systems is often unstable and may be associated with rain and wind.
o Often a LOW will be associated with cloud cover.
- trough
opposite of a ridge an elongated area of low pressure
- col
is a region between 2 highs that there are generally good flying conditions due to the lack of wind.
- front
is a difference in air density, temperature, and cloud formation.
cold front
is represented as a solid line with spikes pointing in the direction of movement.
o Riser in atmospheric pressure
o Decrease in temperature.
o In a cold front warm air is being lifted
o Types of clouds that often come with a cold front is altocumulus, cumulus, and cumulonimbus.
Warm fronts
are represented as a solid line with knobs off it pointing in the general direction that the front is heading in.
o Rise in temperature
o Decrease in atmospheric pressure.
o Types of clouds that can occur during a warm front can be nimbostratus altostratus and cirrostratus.
- Local winds
are only parts of day or night-time and confined to a particular area and this is due to unequal surface heating and cooling of earth’s surface.
- Sea breeze
is during the day when the land is hotter than the ocean so warm air rises, and the oceans cool breeze comes to fill the warm heating air.
- Land breeze
is during the night-time when the land cools faster than the ocean and the warm air from the ocean rises and comes to fall on the land to fill the vacuum where the cooler air goes to fill the oceans vacuum.
- Katabatic winds
are formed in the evenings and come down into valleys of slopes of the mountains, this is because the ground loses its heat fast, so air falls due to the rise in density to the temperature fall.
Anabatic winds
are often formed during the day and climb up hills and slopes. This is due to the ground heating up and the surface heating up so air rises up the mountains.
- Foehn winds
winds are when a wind forces itself up a mountain making it cool and become saturated and creating a cloud over the top of the mountain. the air reaches the lower slopes of the mountain, it is usually a warm dry wind and that is the foehn wind.
- Different types of cloud wording
o Status meaning layer.
o Cumulus meaning a pile and a streak of clouds.
o Nimbus meaning rain cloud.
o cumulonimbus meaning a raining heap cloud.
o High clouds above 20,000 feet (cirr_____)
o Mid-level clouds 8,500-20,000feet (Alto______)
o Low clouds surface-8,500 feet (anything else)
Oktas means
eighths of sky covered horizontally.
- Atmospheric stability is related to
vertical motions of stability within the atmosphere.
o Stable atmosphere
is when a parcel of air returns to its original position or level after having been disturbed.
o unstable atmosphere
is when a parcel of air is to rise to a high level than its origin after being disturbed.
o Neutral atmosphere
is when the parcel neither returns to its original position nor moves furthered away from its new position.
- absolute humidity
o Describes the quantity of water vapour present in a particular volume or parcel of atmosphere.
o Measure of actual amount of water vapour as grams per kilogram of air.
- relative humidity
o Measures how close the air is to saturation. Ratio of mass of water vapour present in a given parcel of air to the mass of water vapour which would cause saturation at the same temperature and pressure. Expressed as: %
- Dew point
is the temperature to which a parcel of air must be cooled at a constant pressure for it to become saturated.
- Cloud formation is when a
cloud forms for a Varity of reasons such as convection, forced ascent, fronts and widespread ascent.
o Convection clouds
form when a parcel of air ascends as a result of being heated by the earth’s surface this often leads to the cloud formation of a cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds.
o Forced ascent is due to
3 different reasons.
Forced ascent
Mechanical turbulence
is when air moving over the irregular surface of the earth. This can lead to the formation of the cloud’s stratocumulus cloud or stratus.
o Forced ascent
Orographic uplift
is where clouds form as a consequence of air being forced to rise over mountains or hills. This often leads to the cloud stratus if the air is moist enough and is a stable atmosphere. Causes stratus or stratocumulus
o Forced ascent
Frontal lifting/ widespread ascent
is when clouds form when there is an interaction between two dissimilar air masses. When the warm and cold air meet the warm air moves over the cold air forming a wedge and the boundary of the 2 masses is called a cold front. Forms a Cumulonimbus or cumulus.
Cloud:
Cirrus
CI
HIGH
clouds are white patches of strings of narrow bands of clouds. (Thread like, like paint)
Cirrostratus
CS
HIGH
are transparent and totally or partially cover the sky. (Sheet or layer (halo phenomena))
Cirrocumulus
CC
HIGH
are thin white layer, sheet or patch of clouds composed of very small elements in the forms of grains, ripples ect, irregularly arranged. (White and lumpy usually thin)
Altostratus
AS
MID
greyish bluish cloud sheet or layer of fibrous or uniform appearance. Partly revel the sun (sheet like)
Altocumulus
AC
MID
white or grey clouds which have patches, sheets, or layers of clouds generally with shading. (Lumpy and heaped)
Nimbostratus
NS
LOW
are clouds which have a grey cloud layer often dark and drop snow or rain. They are thick enough to block out the sun. (Sheet layer STORMY