Exam revision Flashcards
How many orders of amphibians are there, and what are they?
There are three orders of amphibians: Caudata, Gymnophiona, and Anura.
What is the only native Australian order of amphibians?
Anura is the only native Australian order of amphibians, comprising toads and frogs.
What are some characteristic features of Anura amphibians?
- X tails
- short stumpy body
- urostyle = shock absorber
- 5 native fams in Aus
- only order endemic to Aus
Can you name some native Australian frog families and their approximate species diversity?
Some native Australian frog families include:
- Limnodynastidae (Ground frogs): 46 species
- Myobatrachidae (Southern frogs): 90 species
- Hylidae/Pelodryadidae (Australian tree frogs): 91 species
- Microhylidae (Tiny treefrogs): 24 species
- Ranidae (‘True frogs’): 1 species
What are some examples of invasive amphibian species?
Invasive amphibian species include Bufonidae (cane toads) and Salamandridae (smooth newts).
What are the common reproductive strategies of Anura amphibians?
Anura amphibians use the following reproductive strategies:
- Mating calls to communicate during the breeding season.
- External fertilization, where eggs are fertilized outside the body.
- They have a typical aquatic larval stage, known as tadpoles.
- devt can be seasonal and slow e.g. Corroborree frog - halts larval devt until late winter
What are the common characteristics of mammals?
Common mammal characteristics include having hair, female lactation (milk production), skeletal similarities (e.g., jawbone structure), and are endothermic.
In which continent can you find all three mammal orders?
Australia is the only continent with all three mammal orders: eutherians, monotremes, and marsupials.
What are some examples of eutherian mammals found in Australia?
- Terrestrial eutherians: Bats (79 species, including insectivorous and megabats), dingoes, and rodents (e.g., hopping desert mouse).
- Marine eutherians: Cetacea (whales and dolphins), Carnivora (seals), and Sirenia (dugongs).
Name two monotreme species and explain their unique characteristics.
Two monotreme species are:
- Platypus (1 species)
- Echidna (1/3 species in Australia)
Unique characteristics of monotremes include:
- Endemic to Australia and Papua New Guinea.
- They are hairy and lactate but do not have teats.
- Reptilian characteristics, such as a pectoral girdle and oviparity (egg-laying).
- They have electroreception, which allows them to detect electrical impulses from prey.
What are the two major groups of marsupials, and can you provide examples from each group?
Marsupials are divided into two major groups:
- Polyprotodons (carnivorous/omnivorous): Examples include bandicoots and bilbies, with dasyurids such as the Tasmanian devil and quoll.
- Diprotodonts (herbivorous/omnivorous): Examples include wombats, koalas, possums, and macropods, such as tree kangaroos, musky rat-kangaroos, quokka, Eastern grey kangaroos, tammar wallabies, and black wallaroos.
Other notable examples
- Possums and gliders: This group includes sugar gliders, scaly-tailed possums, cuscus, and bobucks.
- Marsupial moles: Found in arid Central and Western Western Australia.
What are the reproductive strategies of each mammallian order?
- Eutherians: Viviparous (giving birth to live young) with variable gestation periods.
- Monotremes: Oviparous (laying eggs) with a high parental investment in incubation period.
- Marsupials: Viviparous with a high PI and simultaneous gestation stages
What is the timeline of the Gondwanan split, and when did it begin?
The Gondwanan split began around 160 million years ago. New Zealand started separating around 80 million years ago, and South America separated approximately 30 million years ago.
When did Australia separate from Gondwana, and what type of vegetation covered most of it as it drifted northward?
Australia separated from Gondwana around 35 million years ago. It was mostly covered in rainforest vegetation as it drifted northward with the Greater Indian Plate.
How did the isolation from Antarctica affect the development of the circum-polar current, and what impact did it have on Antarctic temperatures?
The isolation from Antarctica enabled the development of the circum-polar current approximately 30 million years ago, which led to a significant decrease in Antarctic temperatures.
When did humans first arrive in Australia, according to the archaeological record?
According to the archaeological record, humans arrived in Australia around 49,000 to 65,000 years ago.
What South Hemisphere species distribution suggests ancient connections due to the Gondwanan split?
- bony-tongue FW fish (osteoglossids) b/c only found in FW
- ratites (flightless birds) - emus, ostriches, cassowaries, rheas
- Nothofagus (southern beech trees) -found in SAm + Aus + NZ - 100mya fossil record predates Aus’ split from G
How do Glossopteris fossils in Antarctica, South America, Australia, and South Africa provide evidence of historical climate conditions?
Glossopteris fossils in these regions suggest historically warmer and more humid climate conditions.
What were some consequences of the development of the polar current and the drifting of Australia northward?
Consequences of these geological events include:
- Increased aridity + contraction of rainforests from around 30 million years ago.
- low nutrient content of landscape bc old land + little volcanic activity + nutrient leeching during warm-wet periods (est laterite land surface - e.g. GOR - bc iron ox + clay bleeching gives red-to-white gradient appearance)
- Wind erosion during dry-cold periods created mobile dunes and salt plains on dried-up lakes.
- Increased fire frequency, leading to the evolution of fire-adapted plants and animals.
How do geological features like the Great Dividing Range influence rainfall patterns in Australia?
The Great Dividing Range traps rainclouds and channels water to the east, resulting in increased rainfall in the eastern coastal edge and arid conditions in the western regions of Australia.
What is the challenge in tropical rainforests due to their dense canopy cover?
The challenge in tropical rainforests is competition for light, as the dense canopy cover exceeds 90%.
What are some adaptations of plants in tropical rainforests to overcome the challenge of competition for light?
- Parasitic plants like Balanophora, which are root parasites with no leaves or stems.
- Epiphytes like strangling fig trees.
- Plants with compound leaves to increase surface area, such as ferns.
What is the primary challenge in deserts when it comes to vegetation?
Deserts have low rainfall.
How do plants in deserts adapt to low rainfall and harsh conditions?
- Light-colored foliage, e.g., White cypress pine (Callitris glaucophylla), to reflect excess sunlight.
- Salt-depositing bladder cells to excrete excess salt.
- Round stems to reduce water loss.
- Succulent plants like boab trees with fleshy leaves and large cells filled with fluid sap for drought tolerance.
- Thick cuticles with a waxy coating to make leaves water-tight and provide UV protection.
- Stomatal protection through structures like hairs, rolling leaves, and sinking stomata to insulate stomatal apertures and reduce water loss, e.g., spinifex (rolling).
- Low leaf surface area to volume ratio.
- Root distribution to access subterranean water sources.
- Habitat preferences near water supplies.
- Leaf azimuth, using paraheliotropic angling, e.g., Hardenbergia.
- Drought deciduity, where some species shed leaves to conserve water.
How does fire influence the vegetation in Southeast Australia?
41% spp SE Aus inc germination w smoke exposure - emphasis on imp of smoke/heat combo (Carthey et al. 2018 & Hodges et al. 2021)
What are some adaptations of plant species in response to fire in the Southeast Australian region?
Species survival:
- Woody female cones in plants like White cypress pine (Callitris glaucophylla) to protect seeds.
- Banksia’s woody fruit follicles requires fire to crack open and expose seeds.
- Acacia’s legumes requires fire to crack open and germinate seeds.
- Smoke acting as a seed ‘hormone’ that stimulates flowering in plants like Xanthorrhoea and Kingia.
Individual survival:
- thick fibrous bark that protects phloem and vascular cambium, enabling plant growth.
Promoting fire through mechanisms like eucalypt oil production.
- Resprouting from epicormic buds, lignotubers, rhizomes, and root suckers.
What is the challenge for coral reefs in the Great Barrier Reef due to the year-round thermocline?
The year-round thermocline leads to low nutrients and low biological productivity in the Great Barrier Reef.
How do complex interspecific interactions in the Great Barrier Reef help sustain coral reef ecosystems?
- Coral-algae interactions: Coral and zooxanthellae (endosymbiotic microalgae) supply nutrients to each other.
- Coral-calcifying algae (CCA) interactions: CCA cues coral recruitment, suppresses macroalgal growth, and contributes to the solidification of reef structures.
- The complexity of these interactions allows coral reefs to thrive despite low nutrient availability.
Why is the low nutrient environment in the Great Barrier Reef important for coral reef ecosystem sustainability?
The low nutrient environment is essential for preventing excess nutrients, which can lead to the proliferation of macroalgae and crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) outbreaks.
What are the key features of the Desert biome?
- Vast stony/sandy areas.
- Dunes.
- Low stony hills.
- Mostly flat terrain.
What are the factors influencing diversity in the Desert biome?
- Approximately 70% of Australia is arid or semi-arid.
- Variable rainfall.
- Variable food availability.
- Weathered terrain leading to nitrogen and phosphorus-poor soil.
- Microhabitats like cracked soil, stony deserts, and spinifex.
What is the evidence of diversity and endemism in the Desert biome?
- The highest diversity is found in invertebrates, with ants and termites dominating.
- The Desert biome is also home to various types of vertebrates.
What are the key features of the Rainforest biome?
- There are two main types: tropical rainforests with ferns and palms, high species richness, and wet lowlands in Queensland, and temperate rainforests often characterized by single species like myrtle beech in Victoria and Tasmania.
- Tropical rainforests have a dense canopy cover exceeding 90%.
What factors influence diversity in the Rainforest biome?
- Rainforests are Gondwanan relics that remained after the majority of rainforests contracted.
- High rainfall and food availability contribute to biodiversity and high biological productivity.
What is the evidence of diversity and endemism in the Rainforest biome?
- Rainforests are home to 50% of Australian fern species.
- Far North Queensland and Tasmania are biodiversity hotspots.
- Rainforests host 13 of the most primitive angiosperm families, including Austrobaileya, with pollen similar to the oldest angiosperm fossils dating back to 120 million years ago.
- Gondwanan relic species like the musky rat kangaroo are present.
- Australian rainforests are unique because small birds disperse 97% of the fruit, while mammals and cassowaries disperse the remaining 3%.
- High biological productivity results in 80% of rainforest fruits being fleshy compared to 17% in Victorian forests.
- Rainforests support 33% of Australian mammal species, 16% of bird species, 23% of reptile species, 23% of frog species, and over 75,000 invertebrate species.
What are the key features of the Alpine biome?
- Alpine biomes include the subnival zone and treeline, covering only 0.15% of Australia’s landmass.
What factors influence diversity in the Alpine biome?
- High water availability, making up 25% of Australia’s rainforest regions.
- Strong winds and extreme temperature differences between day and night.
- Average temperatures in warm months are below 10°C.
- Seasonal food availability.
What is the evidence of diversity and endemism in the Alpine biome?
- invertebrates = most div + abundant
- low bioproductivity and strong winds means low plant spp. div - primarily herbfields + lichen
- Spp div = seasonal e.g. all bird spp mig seasonally e.g. flame robin
- spp div dec as alt inc
What are the key features of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) biome?
- Located in far northern Queensland.
- Comprises more than 3,000 reefs covering 24,000 square kilometers.
- Includes seagrass, mangroves, and islands.
- Originated 7,000 to 9,000 years ago following the last ice age, with a significant sea level drop.
What factors influence diversity in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) biome?
- Stony corals serve as a habitat and a refuge for various species.
- The Great Barrier Reef experiences low nutrient availability and low biological productivity due to a year-round thermocline that inhibits the mixing of deep nutrient-rich water.
What is the evidence of diversity and endemism in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) biome?
- 10% spp endemic
- The GBR exhibits the world’s highest diversity in red and brown algae and fish species.
- Diversity is concentrated within coral reefs, with over 600 hard and soft coral species.
- The GBR is home to approximately 3,000 mollusc species, about 1,625 fish species, over 30 species of whales and dolphins, 6 species of turtles, and more than 200 bird species.
What are the key features of the Great Southern Reef (GSR) biome?
- Extends over 8,100 kilometers along the southern coastline of Australia.
- Dominated by kelp and fucoid algae, which serve as habitats and refuges.
- Experiences variable temperatures and is subject to strong waves and the influence of boundary currents like the Leeuwin and East Aus currents.
What factors influence diversity in the Great Southern Reef (GSR) biome?
- boundary currents (Leeuwin and East Australian) maintains a stable climate and connects larval and propagule populations.
- extreme weather conditions, including strong waves
- variable temperatures allows for seasonal thermocline, which enables nutrients to mix during winter and support greater bioproductivity than the GBR
What is the evidence of diversity in the Great Southern Reef (GSR) biome?
- spatiallydiv - each reef in unique
- ES incl. kelp forests, coastal reefs, and seagrass meadows.
- wide range of fish, ray and shark spp, incl. ornate cowfish, smooth stingray, old wife, and common stranger.
- 80-90% spp in most marine grps = endemic vs 10% GBR
How do reptiles relate to the monophyletic tree, and where are their hotspots for diversity?
- Reptiles are not monophyletic; turtles branch early, leading to two main reptile groups: archosaurs and lepidosaurs.
- Reptile diversity hotspots are in the desert and tropics, with approximately 90% of species being endemic.
What are the orders of reptiles and some key details about each?
- Crocs (1 Family, 1 Genus, 2 Species, tropical, with freshwater crocs being endemic).
- Turtles (4 Families, 15 Genera, 29 Species, including freshwater and marine turtles, such as Chelidae, Carettochelydidae, and Cheloniidae, with high conservation concern).
- Squamates (snakes and lizards) with various families and species, including Agamidae, Geckos, Legless lizards, Scincidae, Varanidae (monitors/goannas), Typhlopidae (blind snakes), Pythonidae, Acrochordidae (file snakes), Colubridae (tree snakes), Elapidae (venom/sea snakes), Laticaudidae, and Hydrophiinae.
Which reptile family includes “dragons,” and what are their characteristics?
- Agamidare
- widespread and mainly endemic
- They are known for basking and their fast nature.
What are some characteristics of geckos, and where are they most diverse?
- three families
- not present in Tasmania.
- They are most diverse in arid and tropical regions.
- They have tail autonomy, are mainly nocturnal, use camouflage, and some have sticky feet.
What is unique about legless lizards, and where are they found?
- endemic to Australia and Papua New Guinea, except for Tasmania.
- X forelimbs
- vestigial hind-limbs
- vocal
- tail autonomy
What are some key features of Scincidae, or skinks?
- Scincidae is the most diverse lizard family in Australia.
- They have 439 species and are the largest and most widespread lizard family.
- Some have reduced limbs.
What are the characteristics of monitors/goannas?
- Varanidae
- Aus= spp div hotspot bc 29/38 spp found here
- forked tongues
- relatively lg
What are some characteristics of blind snakes?
- Typhlopidae
- small
- nocturnal
- insectivorous
What are some characteristics of pythons?
- Pythonidae
-most diverse in Northern Australia. - up to 7 meters in length
- detect endothermic prey through heat pits
- kill prey via constriction - asphyxiation
What are some characteristics of file snakes?
- Acrochordidae
- aquatic snakes that feed on fish
- X possess venom
- recent arrivals to Aus
What are the characteristics of tree snakes, and where are they primarily found?
- Colubridae
- low diversity in Australia
- mainly located in the north and east coast
- arboreal or aquatic
- rear-fanged
- some venomous
What are some key features of venomous and sea snakes?
- Elapidae
- widespread, with 141 species.
- Some are front-fanged venomous, while others are non-dangerous.
- Bandy-bandy snakes specialize in feeding on blind snakes.
What is unique about the subfamilies Laticaudidae and Hydrophiinae?
- These subfamilies are part of Elapidae.
- They include sea snakes and are now considered elapids.
Which reptiles are oviparous, and do they exhibit maternal care?
- Oviparous reptiles include crocs, turtles, all Agamidae lizards (dragons), all geckos, some Scincidae, all Varanidae, all Pythonidae, some Colubridae, and some Elapidae.
- Crocs exhibit maternal care.
Which reptiles are viviparous and are common in cold/southern regions?
- Viviparous reptiles are some Scincidae, all Acrochordidae, some Colubridae, some Elapidae, and all Hydrophiinae.
What are the courtship behaviors of Agamidae lizards (dragons)?
- head bobbing
- arm waving
What is parthenogenesis, and which reptiles exhibit it?
- Parthenogenesis is a form of reproduction in which females can produce offspring without fertilization by males.
- Some geckos exhibit parthenogenesis.
Which reptiles are known to incubate their eggs?
Pythons
How is sex determined in marine turtles and freshwater crocs?
- In marine turtles, sex determination depends on temperature: below 30°C results in all males, 30-32°C results in a mix of genders, and above 32°C results in all females.
- In freshwater crocs, it’s the opposite: below 30°C results in all females, 30-32°C results in a mix of genders, and above 32°C results in all males.
What group do most Australian birds belong to, and what are some defining features of birds?
- Most Australian birds belong to the group of corvids, which are descended from crows and ravens.
- Defining features of birds include feathers, wings, light and strong hollow bones, beaks (lacking teeth), oviparous reproduction, and endothermic metabolism.
How many species of birds are found in Australia, and what are the largest and smallest Australian bird species?
- Australia is home to 898 bird species.
- The largest Australian bird is the cassowary, and the smallest is the Weebil.
What is the scientific classification for modern birds, and what is the order that includes songbirds and perching birds?
- Modern birds belong to the class Aves.
- The order that includes songbirds and perching birds is the Order Passerines, which makes up half of the global bird species diversity.
What are the five broad groups of birds found in Australia, and can you provide examples of bird species from each group?
The five broad groups of Australian birds are:
1. Gondwanan non-passerines (e.g., ratites, parrots, and penguins)
2. Australasian passerines (e.g., fairy wrens, magpies, and honeyeaters)
3. Eurasian passerines e.g. european starlings
4. Introduced species (e.g., feral pigeon and house sparrow)
5. Global groups such as raptors (diurnal and nocturnal) and sea/shorebirds (e.g., seagulls).
What are some characteristics of Gondwanan non-passerines in Australia, and can you provide examples of bird species in this group?
- Gondwanan non-passerines in Australia include ratites, parrots (with characteristics like monogamy, strong curved beaks, bright colors, and tree hollow nests), and penguins (with one species).
