Exam review Families in Canada Flashcards
Anthropology & Disciplinary Research Method:
The scientific study of the development of the human species and the various cultures that make up humanity
Disciplinary Research Method:
Field Study: Participant observation
Schools/Branches for Anthropology:
Social Anthropology: Focuses on the social organization of living peoples
Physical Anthropology: Links with the natural sciences such as biology and genetics (Examines the evolution of human kind over the past few million years and compare the genetic characteristics of humans with biologically similar animals)
Cultural Anthropology: Examines the and compares the cultures of living people
Anthropology’s Notable Scientists:
Louis and Mary Leakey
Dian Fossey
Birute Gladikas
Jane Goodall
Psychology & Disciplinary Research Method:
The systematic study of people’s thoughts, feeling, and behavior
Disciplinary Research Method:
Experiments
Schools/Branches for Psychology:
Behavioral Psychology: The move towards studying behavior, which is observable and therefore, can be studied more objectively than the invisible mind. The goal of behavioral psychology is “the prediction and control of behavior” (as described by Watson). This school is encouraged to use animals is psychological analysis
Psychoanalysis: Followers of this school try to probe the innermost feelings (thoughts, feelings, emotions, fantasies, and dreams) of their subjects, with the view to treat patients, patients who suffered anxieties and tensions.
Cognitive Psychology: Studies how people perceive and deal with the environment, how people learn and remember, where in the human memories are stored, how humans acquire and use language, and how they reason and make decisions.
Psychology’s Notable Scientists:
Ivan Pavlov
BF Skinner
Sigmund Freud
Piaget
Eriksson
Gilligan
Scoicology & Disciplinary Research Method:
Is the scientific study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society
Disciplinary Research Method:
Case Study
Interviews
Statistical Analysis
Schools/Branches for Sociology:
Functionalist School: The branch that studies society as a whole and analyzes how the parts of a society should work to achieve stability and well-being for all members (like studying the human body and mind)
Conflict School: The branch of theory based on the work of Karl Marx, that studies how humans compete for scarce resources. Two of the key resources are power and control in society (This is the ability to produce goods, to produce needs and wants).
Symbolic Interactionist School: The branch that focuses on the belief and actions of individuals and the meanings these individual give to their belief and actions (focus: small-scale interactions between the individuals)
Sociology Notable scientist:
Karl Marx
Comte
Parsons
Max Weber
Ethnocentrism
Evaluating behavior from the point of view of your own culture.
Functionalism:
Functionalism or structural functionalism is a very historic school of sociology, whose followers try to understand the organization and effective functions of a society.
Functionalism is a very broad theoretical perspective.
Functionalists heavily focus upon how structures function. Structures, also called institutions, are components of society such as the law, school, family, political systems, etc. For functionalists, society operates more effectively when there is a balance within and between structures, improvement in society occurs slowly, steadily, and in harmony with one another.
This equilibrium of structures can only be obtained by the individuals within the structure. Within the functionalism perspective, everyone in society has a status, a specific position within a social group, and a role, a set of expected behaviors performed within a status.
When someone does not fulfill their status and/or acts their role, an institution does not function effectively, thus the other institutions they interact with, and furthermore, that society as a whole.
When observing a society, functionalists also identify norms, a prevalent behavior, norms are usually considered the most functional approach. To tie all these ideas together, we can use a metaphor to better understand this perspective.
Exam of Functionalism:
E.x.Within the sport of soccer, the 4-4-2 formation has been used by coaches for decades. The 4-4-2 is composed of 4 defenders, 4 midfielders, and 2 forwards. A functionalist would observe his team, ensuring that each defender, midfielder, and forward are playing their position and only their position. A functionalist coach would also ensure that each player can play their position to the best of their ability, a defender should only work to be a good defender, a midfielder should only work to be a good midfielder, and so on. As can be seen, functionalists heavily oversimplify. The fact of the matter is that individuals are exactly that, individuals, we have the freedom to not follow the set status or role we are expected of. At some point, functionalism becomes a matter of prescribing a role and status, not describing it. Returning to our analogy, teams who usually play the 4-4-2 don’t always win.
Systems Theory:
Systems theory is a sociological theory that is similar to functionalism, and like functionalism, systems theory attempts to explain and understand individuals within a system and how systems interact with one another to develop/improve steadily over time.
Unlike functionalism, systems theory examines behavior of individuals as inseparable within a society.
Systems Theory is built upon feedback, followers of the school believe that it’s vital for a system to inform members, feedback allows give and take which allows members to adjust to these influences accordingly, ensuring system stability and efficiency.
Systems theory is often applied to families. Family systems theory can have many complex and special characteristics. Families interest system theorists because members that are either present or not present can still influence/inspire the behavior members
Analogy + example of systems theory:
(e.x. The problems that may arise from a divorce within a family system). Within large family systems, subsystems can be organized. There is a family-unit subsystem of those members sharing a household, an interpersonal system between individual members (e.x. husband-wife), and personal subsystems of individual interaction between self and as a member of the family.
A common analogy that sums up systems theory is the image of a cake. Each ingredient, the flour, eggs, sugar, sprinkles, and so on, all serve a purpose. Each ingredient can be sweet or earthy, some can interact with/mix with other ingredients, and in combination with one another, can also serve a culinary purpose. Not every cake is made well, it’s the bakers responsibility to receive feedback from those who eat their cake. A baker may have to remove or adjust the ingredients used, ingredients are inseparable from a cake. If the cake is bad, it’s probably because of an inappropriate use of an ingredient or ingredients.
Symbolic Interactionism:
Symbolic interactionism is a psychological theory that focuses upon and attempts to explain how people give meaning and process their interactions and experiences.
This process is important for followers of this school because how we process information correlates directly with how we respond to it.
Symbolic interactionism is based upon three concepts:
An individual has an objective (“me” self) and subjective (“I” self) sense of self. The objective self is composed of traits that are objectively present, such as height, skin tone, hair color, etc. The subjective self are traits that are of subject to a person. A person may classify themselves as shy or witty. The “I” self is believed to be founded upon feedback from others.
The basis of human interaction described by George Mead is to “take the attitude of the other” or predict what and/or how the other person will respond.
Communication/interaction between people is only effective when they share a common language (shared symbols).
A common example that symbolic interactionism is utilized is in a romantic relationship. Problems usually arise within a relationship because of clashing perceptions and ideas of the other sex’s actions. This mutual confusion can create an ineffective relationship.
Social Exchange Theory:
Is a psychology theory that makes an effort to explain the social elements that affect how people interact in reciprocal relationships.
People act within each position to maximize the benefits they will receive and to minimize the costs to themselves, according to social exchange theorists, even when they are bound by role expectations.
Benefits may include cash, affirmation, power, or even modest gestures like a high-five or grin, while penalties might include shame, embarrassment, or facial expressions like an angry scowl or raised eyebrows.
This relates to relationships as well, and partnerships are stable when the benefits of each relationship balance the costs. The activities that fulfill another person’s needs, such as giving emotional or physical support or exchanging goods or services, are considered the costs of a relationship. This idea says that people favor partnerships that are more advantageous than alternatives in terms of both cost and rewards.
For example, a person asked someone out; if they accepted, it meant they had received the reward and were more inclined to ask them out again. Their confidence grows as a result. On the other hand, if the individual declines their request for a date, it is viewed as a cost because you might be hesitant to make a date request in the future as a result of the rejection.
Social scientists have also investigated how many people sustain their relationships by making choices that would not negatively impact the relationship or making it unacceptable to others.
For instance, a relationship in which one partner follows a specific religion while the other does not identify with any organized religion. They might decide to accept each other’s beliefs and find ways to encourage and engage in each other’s practices while maintaining their own essential beliefs if they want their relationship to last. This might involve participating in religious rituals together, openly and politely debating their ideas, and discovering shared values like kindness, compassion, and understanding.
They are preserving their relationship while also making decisions that respect their unique selves.
Conflict Theory:
An interdisciplinary sociological and political theory called conflict theory explains how a society is held together by power rather than functional interdependence.
Conflict theories explain how different groups in society hold different levels of power. Since there are numerous groups in society, there must be some level of competition for them to obtain what they need.
Unfortunately, exploitation occurs when those in the group with more power over members of a group with less power, even though there should be equal competition for both groups. The split among groups will make it impossible to meet everyone’s requirements. There are numerous groups inside society that are at odds with one another because of the influence they each possess.
This could also imply financially. While others who are less fortunate will struggle, wealthy people have more opportunities to develop and construct their lives. Since the wealthy, sometimes referred to as the bourgeoisie, held great authority, they were able to dictate how the working class, or Proletariats, lived.
Politicians like Justin Trudeau, the Prime Minister of Canada, are a prime illustration of it. He has a significant influence over how Canadians live and earn a living. Due to the tax increase and the fact that there are fewer disadvantaged individuals, the majority of them would find it difficult to afford purchasing necessities as prices rose.
The early division of men and women wasn’t as equal, which is another illustration of conflict theory. Traditionally, a man would take care of the family’s needs while the woman stayed home to look after the home and children. The only way for women to survive was to marry off to wealthy men, which truly put them at a disadvantage. Women who are alone or widowed experience a disadvantage because they are unable to support themselves financially and must rely solely on their husbands.
Feminist Theory:
Demonstrates how gender affects both behavior and sex, which is a persistent problem from a perspective on women. It likewise illustrates how social inequality between men and women exists, but from the standpoint of women.
There aren’t many viewpoints on how women see the world because many aspects of modern life have been run by numerous men.
The dynamics of a double standard are another aspect of feminist theory; these standards analyze the various behaviors of men and women while at the same time having the potential to favor one group over another.
Men are applauded for things like taking care of their kids or completing a basic task for them, but mothers are expected to do all of those things and are shamed for taking a break.
Another instance of a double standard is when males who are strong and self-assured are applauded in a workplace while women are seen as whiny and confrontational.
Feminist theory in general has connections to conflict theory, but it was designed to specifically separate sex and gender from class. Additionally, they developed in opposition to sociology’s gender biases.
Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Life:
Erikson was the first psychologist to attempt to describe the stages of human development from childhood through adolescence and to adulthood.
Erikson described each stage as a point in which an individual matures and their identity evolves, one’s identity being shaped by the dilemmas/problems each stage presents. Erikson believed that a failure to face and overcome the challenges at each stage can result in problems in the future.
Erikson believed that people are pushed through these stages by the biological (physical aging, growth, etc) and social (peer pressure) developments in which they live through. Identity development differs, Erikson believes it is a result of psychological development.
Erikson believed that adolescence is when an individual’s identity faces role confusion (a person is challenged to define who they are and what they are). Anxiety arises because many people within this age group must make many important decisions about their future career paths and identity, some without any purpose or idea of how to decide. Erikson believes that people within this stage must gain a sense of fidelity, the strength to make choices that serve personal needs, strengths and interests and later, to serve others (family, romantic partner, etc).
When someone reached early adulthood, Erikson believed that the major dilemma people faced was the battle between intimacy and isolation. Erikson defined intimacy as the ability to share one’s identity with someone else without completely losing their sense of self. Erikson thought identity formed within adolescence should be shared through intimacy in adulthood, believing that it provided a new and clear perspective to see ourselves. Thus, identity is only as strong as the ability to be intimate, and vice versa. Intimacy also provides young adults a sense of love, defined as an incredibly powerful sense of caring and generosity, a feeling that overpowers any sort of feeling of isolation.
Erikson and Carol Gilligan both suggested that women are more capable at developing their identity and ability to be intimate simultaneously, while men on the other hand are only capable of completing one after another.
When someone reached adulthood, Erikson believed that an individual would begin to face the dilemma of generativity versus stagnation. In other words, Erikson believed that the biggest challenge adults face is how to acquire the strength to care. Traditionally, people acquired this strength by creating a family or completing something of great accomplishment. Nowadays, both facilitators for this strength may be a less viable option for some adults. Nonetheless, Erikson found great importance from this strength, as it follows, complements, and completes the previously obtained and mentioned strengths.
Jane Loevinger - Theory of Ego Development
Similarly to Erikson, Loevinger believed that a person’s identity developed through stages of life. Dissimilarly to Erikson, Loevinger adopted Freud’s idea of the ego. As well as adopting a more Freudian idea of self, Loevinger also believed that stage development occurred more as a result of solely a psychological clock.
Loevinger believed that from infancy to elderliness, a person learns to become someone separate from their mother, a person that understands their uniquely complex identity.
Loevinger believes that young adults/adolescents are at a transitional “self-aware level” between the conformists and conscientious stage. Adolescents in the conformist stage tend to be less open-minded, viewing life as a more categorial experience, classifying their experiences in a more rudimentary way. Young adults at the self-aware level tend to be more open-minded about the diverse experiences and characteristics of life. At the conscientious level, young adults are able to take this self-aware approach and apply it to intimacy, being able to appreciate and reciprocate within a relationship.
In conclusion, Loevinger’s theory of ego development shares common ideas such as the concept of stages, the development of identity, and the importance of understanding oneself and thus, others. Dissimilarly, Loevinger believed that this stage progression only occurred through a psychological clock.
The Family Life Cycle (Carter & McGoldrick)
Carter and McGoldrick believed that early adulthood/young adults was the stage in which individuals began to become separate people from their families. This process is an essential component for young adulthood, as it allows a young adult to accept emotional responsibilities.
Carter and McGoldrick that three tasks must be completed before this process can happen.
In a process called individuation, young adults must figure out what emotional traits to adopt and abandon from their family as well as what to create as an individual.
Young adults must develop peer relationships outside of their family. These peer relationships help provide a young adults with social and emotional support they need
Young adults must make a tentative commitment to a career.
These tasks enable young adults to become more self-sufficient
This cycle doesn’t promote a complete separation of a child from their parent, it rather promotes the development of a new relationship throughout life. As a child becomes older, they see their parents in a less hierarchical view, seeing them as more of an equal peer. In similar fashion, as a parent grows older, they must be more understanding of the new responsibilities and relationships their children now have.
The family-cycle theory emphasizes these developments as a response to a crisis, a response in which the family can move into a different stage of life. Separation from the family of origin is the key for young adults and parents to move onto their next stage of life.
Daniel Levinson’s Theory of the Seasons of Life
Levinson proposed that early adulthood starts in highschool at the ages of 12 until 25. Between the ages of 17 and 22, Levinson indicates this transitional period as the stage in which an individual should leave their adolescent life and begin preparing for a more adult life structure.
Similarly to Loevinger, Levinson wrote about an individual’s separation from the family of origin. However, Levinson specified that physical separation is not as necessary, rather it is the emotional attachment that should be changed in order to allow the individual to participate more in the adult world
During the ages of 22 and 28, an individual begins to enter the adult world. Levisnon identified four major tasks in this period.
Forming a purpose, dream, and/or purpose in life
Forming peer/mentor relationships
Acquiring an occupation
Forming a romantic/loving relationships (marriage and a family)
Levinson identified that the dream is an individual’s sense of self but as an adult in the world. A dream is a core of their life structure. Dreams can vary, but the majority are usually an amalgamation of family, occupation and community roles. Initial choices of occupations, romantic and peer relationships help support this dream.
From the ages 22 to 28, Levinson believed that young adults begin to establish and test their life structure composed of work, love, and community. This test run builds towards one’s dreams. A dilemma is found when this young adult lives this test run, the individual may become anxious, question if their dream is realistic or truly satisfying
The age of 30 acts as a transitional stage between the ages of 28 and 33. Levinson believed that individuals at this age began to re-evaluate the life structure they formed in their 20’s. Levinson described this re-evaluation process as an inner voice attempting to decipher what the individual truly wants for the rest of their lives. Levinson described this stage as a time to “get real” as it a time that precedes when most people begin to settle down (get married, start a family, etc)
Klaus Reigel’s Interpertation of Development
Rather than describing development as occurring in predictable stages, Reigel believed that development in adulthood occurred through the interaction of internal and external changes. Similarly to Erikson, he too believed that these changes were a result of an internal biological clock and external social clock
Kiegel described four interconnected internal and external dimensions of development:
The individuals’ psychological dimension describes emotional maturity and independence, and the maturity of mental processes
The individual biological dimension describes physical and sexual maturity
The cultural-sociological dimension encompasses the expectations and opportunities that each society defines for individuals
The environmental dimension describes the physical, economic, and political environment in which the individual lives
Similarly to systems theory, Riegel’s theory states that development occurs when a change in a dimension requires adjustments in the other dimensions. For example, marriage occurs when an individual is mentally and physically mature, when the culture deems the individual old enough, and when the individual is able to live independently with their partner in their economic environment. If the conditions do not compliment the initial dimension, the change and development is delayed or falter, this system explains why the pace of adulthood developments reflect the changing social clock around a person.
Leonard Pearlin’s Theory of Psychological Distress
Pearlin attempts to rationalize the unique developments of individuals, connecting these developments to observable and common patterns. Pearlin described that adulthood did not occur in stable stages like his predecessors, but rather a continuous lifetime of experiences with occasional periods of stability.
Pearlin identified four elements that comprises the path that an individual takes in their life:
Individual characteristics (gender, race, intelligence, personality, education, etc)
An individual’s multitude of skills for coping with stress or change
Availability to social support networks
The nature and timing of stress that requires a response
Pearlin agreed that early adulthood is a time to pursue adolescent dreams, but he also believed that an individual’s life structure could change at any time. He suggested that these abrupt changes reveal a pattern because they occur in response to common external circumstances and stresses (leaving school, working, etc). Such circumstances are ingrained within our social clock and in how we are socialized at a young age, thus unique individual developments can be predictable and observed in a common pattern amongst society. Pearlin cited his previous predecessors’ patterns as an example of a cohort effect, a change in behavior that is a result of socialized response to a common social clock rather than age-linked inner changes.
Cooley – Looking Glass Theory
In his looking glass theory, Charles Cooley compared the significant people in one’s life to looking glasses or mirrors.
When you present yourself to others by your words and actions, you interpret other’s reactions as reflections of their evaluation of you, and form your self-identity as a result of their interpretations.
Erikson explains that forming a true identity requires that one’s self-image matches the image he or she thinks others have of him or her. Just as the quality of a mirror affects the accuracy of one’s body image, so others can affect the accuracy of an individual’s identity.
Erikson described the importance of choosing reliable significant others as role models
