Exam Review Flashcards

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1
Q

Identify the difference between Intermolecular forces and Intramolecular forces, with examples.

A

Intermolecular forces → Forces between atoms within different molecules.
Examples: Van der Waals, H+ bonding, dipole-dipole

Intramolecular forces → Forces between atoms within the same molecule.
Examples: Covalent, Ionic, Metallic bonding

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2
Q

Recognize and name the 7 properties of water and their influence on the environment and life.

A
  1. Universal solvent →
    - Water can dissolve most substances because it’s polar - Important so that we are able to transport and break things down in our bodies
    - Water can also transport nutrients to ecosystems that wouldn’t have been able to occur if water wasn’t polar
    - Oxygen can also dissolve in water
  2. Surface Tension →
    - Network of H-bonds exist like a film on top of the water
    - Not static bonds (constantly breaking/reforming)
    - Form a net like effect
  3. Less dense when frozen →
    - Less dense in its solid state (ice) compared to its liquid state (water)
    - Ice floats as a result
    - Ice floating on top insults fish in the winter
  4. High Specific Heat (HSH) →
    - Water heats up and cools down gradually
    - Water can store a large quantity of heat and release it slowly
    - Without HSH more water would remain in a gas state
    - Helps to moderate coastal climates
    - Heat stored in water (absorbed all summer) then released during winter, making coast line climates warmer
  5. Cohesion →
    - Water sticking to water
    - Important for plants to transport water up and down stem
  6. Adhesion →
    - Water sticking to other surfaces
    - Water up stems against the pull of gravity
  7. High Heat of Vaporization →
    - Amount of energy needed to change from a liquid to a gas
    - Water can absorb a large amount of energy before turning into a gas
    - When sweat beads on your skin, the water absorbs a large amount of heat from the body before evaporating
    - takes extra energy to break H-bonds
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3
Q

Name the 4 macromolecules with their monomers/polymers.

A

Proteins →
Monomer: Amino acids
Polymer: Polypeptide

Lipids →
Monomer: Fatty Acids/Glycerol
Polymer: Triglyceride, Phospholipids, Cholesterol, Steroids

Carbohydrates →
Monomer: Monosaccharide (glucose, fructose, galactose)
Polymer: Disaccharide (maltose, sucrose, lactose), Polysaccharide (amylose, amylopectin, starch)

Nucleic Acids →
Monomer: Nucleotides
Polymer: DNA, RNA

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4
Q

Link between macromolecules and a healthy diet.

A

Proteins → Essential amino acids used to build new proteins (and enzymes)
- help rebuild tissue and muscle

Carbohydrates → Used for short-term energy

Lipids → Used for long term energy storage, insulation, creating steroids

Nucleic Acids → Used for genetic material

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5
Q

Using the molecular formula for carbohydrates (CH2O)

A

Multiply everything by the given number.

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6
Q

Identify functional groups in a given molecule.

A
Hydroxyl →  OH
Sulfhydryl →  SH
Carboxyl → COOH
Carbonyl → CO
Amino → NHH or NHHH
Phosphate → POOO
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7
Q

Be able to recognize and describe the 4 biochemical reactions.

A

Condensation → Removing water to join two smaller molecules to form a larger molecule

Hydrolysis → Adding water to a larger molecule to split it into smaller molecules.

Redox → Paired reactions where on substance gains e- and the other loses e-
(e- gained → reduction)
(e- lost → oxidation)

Neutralization → Acid mixing with a base to form a salt and water

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8
Q

Explain the difference between monounsaturated, polyunsaturated and saturated fats.

A

Monounsaturated →

  • Composed of unsaturated fatty acids
  • a phosphate group bound to glycerol
  • at least one double bond (kinked)

Polyunsaturated →

  • many double bonds
  • the more double bonds the healthy for you it is

Saturated fats →

  • Composed of saturated fatty acids
  • single bonds in their hydrocarbon chain
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9
Q

Recognize the base molecule structure of an amino acid.

A
H       H       O-H
     \       |      /
       N - C - C = O
     /       |
 H         R
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10
Q

Draw representative diagrams for primary, secondary (alpha and beta), tertiary, and quaternary proteins, and explain what interactions create these different forms.

A

Primary → Straight line (amino acids joined by peptide bonds)

Secondary → bent of spiral shape due to H-bonding between side chains
Alpha → Looped
Beta → Folded (pleated)

Tertiary → Single scribble (created by the interactions of side chains in a long polypeptide)

Quaternary → 4 Scribbles together (Interactions between side chains)

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11
Q

Enzymes: Their role in lowering activation energy, active site, allosteric site, enzyme-substrate complex, inhibitors and activators, things that control the reaction rate of an enzyme, problem with denaturation.

A

Lowering activation energy →

  • Enzymes act as catalysts to lower activation energy
  • without enzymes, reactions in the body would happen to slowly
  • prepare substrates for reaction by lowering activation energy
  • they can change the environment/substrate to get the substrates to react
  • when reaction is over, enzyme releases the products and can be used over again to catalyze more substrates

Active site →

  • Location where a substrate binds to the enzyme
  • Location where the chemical reactions takes place

Allosteric site →

  • binds to the allosteric site of an enzyme
  • changes the shape of the active site
  • prevents substrate from binding

Enzyme-substrate complex →
- an enzyme and a substrate bonded together

Inhibitors →
- bind to the enzyme and prevents the substrate from attaching

Activators →

  • bind to the allosteric site of the enzyme and changes the shape of the active site
  • increases enzyme activity

Rate of Reaction →

  1. reducing available substrates
  2. saturation of substrates
  3. enzyme inhibitors
  4. enzyme activators

Denaturation →

  • cant catalyze reactions if their shape is changes (substrate wont fit)
  • enzyme cant be used anymore
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12
Q

Explain the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane and its components.

A

Fluid →

  • able to move around
  • phospholipids are not static
  • they are able to change places around the membrane
  • even switch with the phospholipids on the inside of the cell

Mosaic →

  • Made up of many smaller units to make a larger unit
  • works together as one unit
    ex. phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, and protein channels.

Model →
- a demonstration of how it works in real life

Components →

Phospholipids → keep water outside and inside of the cell

Cholesterol → allows for movement of phopholipids, molecules to pass through
- increases fluidity, especially in cold temperatures)

Glycolipids → the “nametags” mark certain molecules, so that the body is able to find them
ex. blood typing

Protein tunnels/channels → allows for larger molecules to pass through the cell membrane

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13
Q

Identify the 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics and their relation to cellular respiration.

A

1st Law → Energy can not be destroyed or created
Ex. energy is transferred or transformed during cellular respiration (NADH, ETC) (electron carriers)

2nd Law → The universe tends towards entropy (disorder)
Ex. cells need to create energy using cellular respiration in order to combat entropy (free radicals)

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14
Q

Purpose of cellular respiration and equation.

A

Eqn. C6H12O6 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Purpose: To make energy.

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15
Q

Role of ADP/ATP, roles and reduction of NAD+ and FAD.

A

ADP/ATP:

  • captures and stores potential energy
  • ADP can be recycled to recreate ATP (using energy from glucose)

NAD+ and FAD:

  • electron carriers
  • reduction happens to power the last stages of cellular respiration (making ATP)
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16
Q

Name and briefly describe what happens during each stage of cellular respiration. Describe what happens to the 2 pyruvate in the transition step and the workings of the ETC. Be able to identify the products of each stage.

A

Glycolysis:
- 1 glucose split to create 2 pyruvate and 2 net ATP

Transition step:
- 2 pyruvate are oxidized by NAD+, loose carbon dioxide, joined with coenzyme A to make 2 molecules acetyl-coA

Krebs Cycle:
- 2 acetyl-coA joins with oxaloactetate to make citrate, 2 net ATP produced, molecules oxidized by NAD+ and FAD, cycle repeats twice for every acetyl-coA

ETC
NADH and FADH2 brings e- from the previous cycles to the mitochondrion and use the energy from the e- to pump protons into intermembrane space, creating a concentration gradient. Protons returning to matrix power ATP, synthase, which joins ADP and Pi to form 32 ATP per glucose.

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17
Q

Identify the differences between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration, with examples.

A

Aerobic - with oxygen (cellular respiration)

Anaerobic - without oxygen (lactate or alcohol fermentation)

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18
Q

Purpose of photosynthesis and equation.

A

Eqn. 6CO2 + 12H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H20

Purpose: Breaking something down.

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19
Q

Problem with Rubisco and the adaptions of C4 and CAM plants to meet the limitation.

A

Cannot distinguish between oxygen and carbon dioxide; creates toxic products when calvin cycle uses oxygen

C4 - bundle sheath cell, two separate cycles
CAM - timing of day/night

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20
Q

Identify what is happening in a photosystem.

A

A photon strikes the top of the thylakoid membrane and excites an e- which bumps it up to a higher energy state. The energy is then transferred between each e- allowing it to “jump” around, until it finally reaches the reaction center chlorophyll where its energy becomes captured and the e- is trapped by the primary electron acceptor.

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21
Q

Compare cyclic and non-cyclic flow of electrons during light-reactions and the purpose of each.

A

Cyclic →

  • Only PS2 occurs
  • ATP is produced

Non-cyclic →

  • the whole process occurs
  • PS1 and PS2 are used to generate ATP and NADPH for the plant.
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22
Q

Explain how photosynthesis played a key role in bringing about the Cambrian explosion, linking it to the needs of larger, more active life forms.

A
  • Stromatlytes photosynthetic bacteria
  • by-product is oxygen
  • binding with iron to produce iron oxide
  • iron was used up, oxygen released into atmosphere
  • animals switched respiration ana to aero.
  • more efficient way of producing ATP
  • SO4 and NO2 used for anaerobic respiration not efficient
  • more electronegative o2 for aerobic respiration more efficient
  • more complex life could form
  • harvest more energy
  • allowed for more complex body systems and hunting
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23
Q

Basic structure of DNA compared to RNA .

A

DNA - phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, base

RNA - phosphate, ribose sugar, base

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24
Q

Explain why there is such a wide variety of life with only 4 nitrogenous bases.

A
  1. Genome can vary a great deal between species.
  2. The size and number of genes can vary a great deal.
  3. Genes also vary in the molecules they produce.
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25
Q

Compare DNA in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

A

Prokaryotes: No nucleus

  • one circular chromosome
  • no histones

Eukaryotes: Have nucleus

  • multiple linear chromosomes
  • DNA wound around histone proteins
26
Q

Chargaff’s Rule and reasons for complementary base pairing.

A

% comp. of A=T, C=G

27
Q

Watson and Crick, Franklin and Wilkins, and Pauling’s race to discover the structure of DNA: what methods they used and who was credited and why?

A

Watson and Crick - Tin/Paper models
Franklin and Wilkins - X-ray crystallography
Pauling - Ball and spoke models, guessing

28
Q

Identify the correct model of DNA replication: conservative, semi-conservative, or dispersive?

A

(Wrong) Conservative: parent strand is separate from the new strand

(Correct) Semi-conservative: half of the parent strand is in the new strand

(Wrong) Dispersive: parent strand fragments to make the new strand

29
Q

Basic description of DNA replication, enzymes involved, and difference between lagging and leading strands.

A

Initiation:

  • DNA strand is separated and unwound to expose nucleotides by helicase by breaking the hydrogen bonds
  • SSB proteins attach and keep the hydrogen bonds for reforming and the strands from twisting up

Elongation:

  • Primase inserts a primer that nucleotides can be added to
  • DNA P3 can then add the new nucleotides
  • Topoisomerase 2 fixes any tangles in the separated strands to relieve stress
  • DNA P3 can only add nucleotides to 3’ end of the DNA
  • Lagging strand built in 5’ to 3’ direction.
  • Leading strand built in one continuous strand moving towards the replication fork with one primer
  • Lagging strand is added in fragments, needs multiple primers since DNA cant move 3’ to 5’
  • Okazaki fragments are a result of this
  • DNA ligase joins the fragments together
  • DNA P1 removes the primers and fills the gaps

Termination:

  • DNA P2 proofreads and corrects mistakes that could have been made
  • new DNA separate from themselves
30
Q

Identify what a codon is and provide examples, linking it to amino acids.

A

Examples: AAA - Lysine

A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides that together form one piece of the genetic code.

31
Q

Difference between the processes of transcription and translation, briefly describe each process.

A

Transcription:
- transcribe the DNA language into mRNA, which is capable of leaving the nucleus and sending the message to the ribosomes

Translation:
- Using mRNA to join amino acids (brought by tRNA) in a specific sequence to make a protein at the ribosome

32
Q

Identify different types of mutations and their effects on translated polypeptides.

A

Silent: does not change the end result, one letter changes producing the same amino acid

Missense: changes the overall outcome of the amino acid

Nonsense: shortens protein by adding a stop codon

Deletion: nucleotide is deleted

Duplication: a nucleotide is copied

Inversion: gene moves within same chromosome

Translocation: gene moves within 2 different chromosomes

33
Q

Identify the processes and breakthroughs for recombinant DNA, PCR, and GMO’s, along with benefits and drawbacks.

A

Recombinant DNA:
Isolate desired gene:
- restriction enzyme cuts out specific part of DNA so desired gene can be isolated
Prepare the vector:
- restriction enzyme cuts the plasmid so a gap is made for the new gene
- the exposed ends are called sticky ends (complementary)
Joining the gene and plasmid:
- ligase joins the sticky ends to create a plasmid including the new gene
- this is called transformation
- pigs stopped being killed
- human genes were used for insulin
- less infections and allergic reactions

PCR:

  • placed in thermal cycler
  • heat up to 95 degrees
  • helix seperates
  • cools down to 50 degrees primers attach
  • heat up to 72 degrees
  • DNA P activated
  • 3 cycles, cycle 1 and 2 same thing
  • cycle desired results start to appear
  1. DNA
  2. Primer 1
  3. Primer 2
  4. DNA P3
  5. Nucleotides

GMO’s:
- Able to grow food in different climates.

34
Q

Define homeostasis.

A

The bodies natural tendency to maintain a relatively constant internal environment.

35
Q

Identity the roles of sensors, control centre, and effectors and provide examples of positive and negative feedback loops.

A

Sensors - monitors the system and detects changes, signals control centre (sensory neurons)

Control centre - receives information about changes from the sensor (brain)

  • sets range of values for factor to be maintained
  • passes signal to the effector from the sensor

Effectors - receives signal from brain
- makes changes so factor goes back to normal level

Positive - Blood clotting
Negative - Blood glucose level

36
Q

Describe the negative feedback loop for the regulation of blood glucose levels.
Identify the organs and hormones involved as well as their effects.

A

Look over test.

37
Q

Identify the main function of the nervous system.

A

Connect the brain to the rest of the body.

- electrochemical signals

38
Q

Roles and structures of CNS, PNS, somatic, peripheral, sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

A

CNS - receives information from sensory nerves, processes information, and then makes the changes

PNS - nerves that link the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body

Somatic - voluntary movement (skeletal muscles)

Peripheral - involuntary movement (heart, breathing)

Sympathetic - responds to stressful situations (fight or flight)
- increased heart rate and blood pressure decreased digestion

Parasympathetic - active when body is at rest, reduces blood pressure, promotes digestion

39
Q

Roles of neurons of glial cells.

A

Neurons - respond to physical/chemical stimuli, conduct an electrochemical signal.

Glial cells - the support crew of the neuron, nourish, supply water, fight against infection, provide supportive tissue

40
Q

Role of occipital, temporal, parietal, and frontal lobes of the brain.

A

Frontal lobe - reasoning and critical thinking
occipital - visual area
parietal - sensory area (skin), and taste
temporal - auditory area

41
Q

Compare the workings of an impulse pathway and reflex arc.

A

Impulse pathway:

  • Sensory imput
  • A signal is received from a stimulus (5 senses)
  • Sent to the inter neuron (sensor)
  • Integration
  • connects the sensory neuron to the motor neuron, it passes the signal on to the motor neuron
  • detects changes, sets narrow range for factor
  • control center (brain)

Motor output

  • signal is revived from the interneuron and the motor neuron sends out a change and takes action by signalling an effector (muscle)
    ex. too hot offload heat by dilating blood vessels

Reflex arc:

  • direct signal from sensory neuron to the motorneuron (effector)
  • allows for quick reaction without the need of the control centre
  • aviod damage to tissues
  • brain plays a role later in pain receptors
  • hot stove example
42
Q

Describe action potential using a graph.

A

Review test answer.

43
Q

Synapse question.

A

Review test answer.

44
Q

Identify the main function of the excretory system.

A

To remove wastes from the body.

45
Q

Describe the structure of a nephron.

A

Ask teacher.

46
Q

Identify what substances are secreted and removed.

A

Use picture given.

47
Q

Briefly describe the filtration process of urine.

A

Review test answer.

48
Q

Explain causes, symptoms and treatments for excretory disorders.

A

You already know the answer.

49
Q

Identify why urinalysis is a useful tool for medical imbalances, some factors that could be measured by this.

A

Glucose in pee - diabetes.

Blood in pee - UTI.

50
Q

Identify the main function of the endocrine system.

A

To send chemical signals throughout the body.

51
Q

Name endocrine glands and their hormones and functions.

A

Review test answer.

52
Q

Steroid vs water soluble hormones.

A

Review test answer.

53
Q

Identify the role of tropic hormones with examples.

A

Review test review answer.

TCH - TSH - T4

54
Q

Explain factors that make population dynamic.

A

People die and people are born in different numbers all the time, nothing stays the same.
- migrations

55
Q

Difference between population size and population density.

A

Population size - the number of individuals in that populations

Population density - the number of individuals in the specific area

56
Q

3 types of population distribution.

A

Clumped - form groups around key resources (watering holes)

Random - species are well distributed in an area due to lots of resources and neutral relations (moose)

Uniform - species are evenly spread out
ex. territorial animals (eagles)

57
Q

Define life history and fecundity, and explain the differences between types 1, 2, 3.

A

Life history - the surviorship and reproductive patterns shown in a population
- sucess of a species based on ability to reproduce and natural selection

Fecundity - average number of offspring produced by a female in her lifetime

Type 1 - (humans) low birth rate, high survival rate to reproduce, lots of parental care

Type 2 - (birds) moderate birth rate, surviorship is constant throughout lifetime

Type 3 - (insects) high birth rate, high mortality few survive to reproduce, no parental care

58
Q

Difference between density-dependent and density-independent with examples.

A

Density dependent - abiotic event that affects the population growth in the same way regardless of population density.
- natural disasters

Density Independent - biotic interaction that is influenced by population density
- competition for resources increases as populations increase

59
Q

Types of competition.

A

Inter-specific - competitive exclusion

  • compete to take dominance in an area
  • bird lives on different levels of tree so they never have to compete for resources

Intra-specific - species in same population have the same needs

  • as population density increases, species will then start to fight for resources
  • if not enough resources are avaliable population will decrease
60
Q

Identify the three types of symbiosis

A

Parasitism - relationship where a species lives off and harms the host

Mutualism - relationship where both species benefit from the relationship

Commensalism - relationship where one partner benefits and the other partner does not benefit but is not harmed

61
Q

Define doubling time, carrying capacity, ecological footprint, and available biocapacity.

A

Doubling time - the time it takes for a population to double

Carrying capacity - not a fixed number, directly related to the available bio capacity, limit to have many people can exist on earth before resources run out

Ecological footprint - the amount of productive land that is required for each person in a defined area

Available bio capacity - earths carrying capacity for the human population