Exam Review Flashcards
1
Q
Biodiversity Definitions
A
The variety of life, including variation among genes, species, and functional traits. It is often measured as: richness a measure of the number of unique life forms; eveness the measure of equitability among life forms; and heterogeneity the dissimilarity among life forms
2
Q
Alpha Diversity
A
Diversity found within a small area , such as a patch of forest or grassland. Number of species that exist in a patch.
3
Q
Beta Diversity
A
a measure of how different patches are from each other. What are the different species.
4
Q
Gamma Diversity
A
Total diversity found within the entire area, which includes all habitat types.
5
Q
Species diversity is based on 2 factors:
A
- Species Richness
- Species Evenness
6
Q
Species Richness
A
The number of species found within a community.
7
Q
Species Evenness
A
The relative abundance of species. Can be thoughts of inverse of dominance.
8
Q
One of the most widely used indices of species diversity is…
A
The Shannon Index
9
Q
The equation used as a measure for species evenness is…
A
Pielou’s J
10
Q
What what the purpose of creating the biodiversity movement?
A
It was the product of a search for unifying goal for conservation
- Biodiversity engulfed all the major issues the environment was facing
11
Q
How did the concept of biodiversity arise?
A
- It arose in environmental circles, not scientific
- Response to unfolding environmental crisis due to colonialism, the industrial revolution, and expanding capitalist economics
- In the 1980s, some ecologists adopted biodiversity conservation as their cause and biodiversity became a credible subject for scientific research
12
Q
Who is the term “biological diversity” accredited to?
A
Thomas Lovejoy, 1980
13
Q
When was the term “biodiversity” officially coined, and for what purpose?
A
Coined in 1985 by W. Rosen as a contraction and catchy hook for a conference call the national forum on BioDiversity
- proceedings were edited by E.O. Wilson and titled “BioDiversity”
14
Q
Planetary Management
A
Humanity is apart from the rest of nature and can manage it to meet our ever increasing needs. Our success depends on how we manage Earth’s systems for our benefit.
15
Q
Stewardship
A
Humanity has an ethical responsibility to be caring stewards of the earth, and our success depends on how well we manage Earth’s life support systems for our benefit and for nature.
16
Q
Environmental Wisdom
A
We are part of and dependent on nature and nature exists for all species. Our success depends on learning how nature sustains itself and integrating those lessons into how we think and act.
17
Q
What ecosystem type is facing the greatest biodiversity losses?
A
Freshwater systems
18
Q
Human Footprint
A
The sum total of ecological footprints of the human population. It expresses that sum not as a single number, however, but as a continuum of human influence stretched across the land surface, revealing through its variation the major pattern of human influence on nature.
Examples
1. Built Environments
2. Crop Lands
3. Pasture Lands
4. Human Population Density
5. Night-time Lights
6. Railways
7. Roads
8. Navigable Waterways
19
Q
What are some responses to Biodiversity loss
A
- Regular conventions
- Aichi targets
- But are these working?
20
Q
Mass Extinction Event
A
Any
- substantial increase in the amount of extinction
- more than one geographically wide-spread higher taxon
- During a relatively short interval of geological time
- at least a temporary decline in their standing diversity
or
Short period when at least 75% of species are lost
21
Q
Mass Extinction Event Recovery
A
- There are an estimated 2 million known species currently living on the planet
- Estimates suggest that there may be 5-10 million species in total
- This number represents only ~2-3% of the number of organisms that have ever existed
22
Q
What are the 2 Issues when debating whether or not we are in the 6th mass extinction
A
- Defining background extinction rates
- Defining a comparable modern extinction rate
23
Q
What are the 5 direct drivers of global anthropogenic biodiversity loss?
A
- Climate change
- Direct exploitation
- Invasive alien species
- Pollution
- Land and sea change
24
Q
Climate change and it’s main impacts
A
Ongoing shifts in species distribution, phenology, population dynamics, ecosystem community composition
- Widespread reductions, and local extinctions of populations
25
Direct exploitation and it's main impacts
- Harvesting wild species
- Rates of unsustainable exploitations accelerated sharply in modern human history
- Fish, invertebrates, trees, tropical vertebrates most impacted
- Marine systems primarily impacted by overharvesting
26
Invasive alien species and it's main impacts
- Outcompete local species for natural resources to significantly disrupt the local ecosystem
- Accelerate extinction rates
- Alien species invasions increase by 40% since 1980 with increased trade and travel
- ~1/5 of Earth surface at risk
27
Pollution and it's main impacts
- Generation of waste products faster than they can be rendered harmless
- Marine plastic pollution increased 10 fold since 1980
- Air and soil pollution increasing
- Atmospheric N most serious concern
28
Land and sea change and it's main impacts
- Conversion of natural land cover types for urban and agricultural uses
- Primarily global agricultural production
- Urban expansion doubled since 1992
- Increasing role of resource extraction sites
29
True or False: Direct drivers are all equal and have the same impact on biodiversity loss
False
30
Driver impact varies by ____
Biosphere type (realm)
31
Ultimate factors:
- Human impact = population, affluence, technology
- Problem is rooted in socioeconomic/political domain
- So ultimately, solutions must come from this domain
32
What is a unifying trait shared by Indigenous peoples and local communities
Often have an intimate connection to their communally-held lands and water
33
The most biodiverse terrestrial ecosystems are ___
forests
- estimated 80% of all terrestrial species are found in forests
34
Endemism
A species with a limited range; found in one area and nowhere else; may be locally abundant
35
True or False: Endemism is more common in forests than other ecosystems
True
36
Biodiversity Hotspots
Areas with exceptional concentrations of endemic species are experiencing exceptional loss of habitat
- Must contain >0.5% of worldwide plant species, and these must be enemic in the area
- Must have already lost >70% of its primary vegetation
37
Fundamental Niche
The multidimensional set of conditions an organism need to survive
38
Realized Niche
The actual niche of a species whose distribution is restricted by biotic interactions (competition, predation, disease, parasitism)
39
Competition
The tendency of organisms to utilize the same resources; interaction detrimental to both
40
Interference Competition
Direct competition between both species in which both species are negatively affected
41
Exploitative Competition
Competition mediated by a basal resource
42
Competitive Exclusion Principal
Two species with identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely
43
Facilitation
An interaction in which the presence of one species alters the environment in a way that enhances the growth, survival, and reproduction of as second species
44
Mutualism
Both species benefit from interaction
45
Commesialism
One species benefits from interaction and the other is unaffected
46
5 key concepts of facilitation
1. Service sharing
2. Stress amelioration
3. Access to resources
4. Creating more niche space
5. Forming novel habitat
47
Niche-based community assembly
Niches can be diverse in time and space
Time: Niche diversity enhanced by disturbances
Space: Spatial variability in environmental factors
The variety of niches in an ecosystem + specialization among species = Prevention of competitive exclusion
48
Environmental Heterogeneity
Variation in environmental conditions within a defined area
49
Area Heterogeneity Trade-off is between
Composition heterogeneity and configurational heterogeneity
50
Composition Heterogeneity
The magnitude of variation in environmental conditions.
- Has no spatial component
51
Configurational Heterogeneity
The spatial pattern of variation in environmental conditions.
- Explicitly spatial with no environmental characteristics
52
Area-Heterogeneity Trade-off
Any increases in environmental heterogeneity within a fixed space must lead to a reduction in the average amount of effective area available for individual species
53
Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis
Connell proposed disturbance is a prevalent feature that significantly influences community diversity
- Proposed high diversity consequences of continually changing conditions
- Predicted that intermediate levels of disturbance promote higher diversity
54
If disturbance is too frequent and intense only __ select species will be present
r
55
If disturbance too infrequent or minor only ___ select species will be present
K
56
Greatest biodiversity is found at ___ levels of disturbance
intermediate
57
Niche Based Assembly Rules
Interspecific interactions particularly competition, lead to non-random co-occurrence patterns.
58
Diamonds Assembly Rules (3)
1. Considering all combinations that could be found for a group of related species, only certain ones exist in nature.
2. Those permissible combinations resist invaders that would transform them to forbidden combinations.
3. Checkerboard rule - some pairs of species never coexist either by themselves or as a part of a larger combination.
59
What are the underlying assumptions of Diamond's Assembly Rules (2)
Reduced Niche Overlap: Species occurring together have small niche overlap because of competition leading to specialization.
Forbidden Species Combination: Due primarily to outcomes of competition affecting species distributions.
60
What are the 2 Model Predictions of Diamond's Assembly Rules
Rule 1 & 2 (permissible pairs - AKA the co-occurence assembly rule) - If true communities should exhibit significantly fewer species combinations than expected by chance
Rule 3 (forbidden Pairs - AKA the Checkerboard assembly rule - If true should see significantly more species pairs in a matrix forming a perfect checkerboards than expected by chance
61
What are C-scores
C-scores of different taxonomic groups higher values indicate fewer species combinations than expected by chance
62
Neutral Theory
Community composition reflects stochastic processes generating non-random patterns
63
What is the debate between Niche and Neutral Theory
Niche: Species organization is governed by competition interactions
Neutral: All individuals are ecologically identical, biodiversity patterns are due to random chance
64
Island Biogeography Theory
Conceptual theory that predicts biodiversity is dependent on:
1. Distance from source populations (immigration)
- closer islands of smaller since have higher immigration rates due to chance arrival.
2. Habitat size (extinction)
- smaller islands have higher extinction rates due to.
a. increasingly limited resources.
b. increased potential for competition.
65
Species Richness can be modeled as a balance between ____ and ____ rates
immigration and extinction rates
66
Unified Neutral Theory of Biodiversity and Biogeography
- Niche and Neutral Debate
Niche - Specificity and adaptations species have matter and are predictive of biodiversity and the success of individual species. These niches matter
Neutral - None of that matters. It has more to do with random chance than nuance details of specific organisms in specific species. Does not matter to understand big scale pictures and how communities are diverse.
- Only immigration, extinction matter
67
Unified Neutral Theory
The abundance and diversity of species in a community is determined mainly by random dispersal, random extinction, and random speciation
68
What are the Main assumptions of Neutral Theory?
1. The zero sum rule
2. Neutrality Assumption
3. Homogenous Habitat
69
Main assumptions of Neutral Theory - The Zero sum rule
No species can increase in abundance without a matching collective decrease in abundance by other species. Give and growth.
70
Main assumptions of Neutral Theory - Neutrality Assumption
All individuals within a particular trophic level have the same chance of reproduction and death regardless species identity. They are functionally equivalent.
71
Main assumptions of Neutral Theory - Homogenous Habitat
The theory breaks down at larger scales, where habitat specialization occurs.
72
Modern Niche Assembly Rules
Assembly rules are general and mechanistic, and operate within the case-specific constraints imposed by colonization and environment.
73
What are the Modern Assembly Rules Filters
1. Dispersal Constraints - historical legacy effects (source population, source impacts)
- Ecological memory - what memories do we have on the landscape and how will they shape the future of the landscape
2. Environmental Constraints - Fundamental niche
3. Biotic Interactions - Realised Niche
74
Modern Assembly Rules - Underdispersion
Traits relatively similar
75
Modern Assembly Rules - Overdispersion
Traits dissimilar
76
Major Hypothesis for latitudinal gradient in biodiversity: The area Hypothesis
The tropic cover larger area than any other ecoclimatic zone
and larger area has
1. Higher speciation rates
2. Lower extinction rates
77
Major Hypothesis for latitudinal gradient in biodiversity: The productivity hypothesis
There is more available energy to support productivity in the tropics than in other ecoclimatic zones (because of favourable climatic conditions)
78
Major Hypothesis for latitudinal gradient in biodiversity: The evolutionary speed hypothesis
Warmer temperatures in the tropics support higher rates of speciation
1. warmer temperatures increase mutation rates
2. Warmer temperatures correspond. with shorter generations
79
Major Hypothesis for latitudinal gradient in biodiversity: The harshness hypothesis
Stable climates in the tropics result in species adapting to species interaction oppose to the environment
80
Ecosystem Services
- Resources and services derived from nature that brings benefits to humans
- Contribute to making human life both possible and worth living
81
What are the 4 categories of ecosystem services
1. Provisioning Services: supply of goods of direct benefit to people
2. Regulating Services: The range of functions carried out by ecosystems
3. Cultural Services: Contributing to wider needs and desires of society
4. Supporting Services: Essential to the functioning of ecosystems
82
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
- Biodiversity is not regarded as an ecosystem service itself, but rather as a prerequisite underpinning each of them.
- Poorly understood how exactly biodiversity influences many ecosystem services
83
Stakeholder use of Ecosystem Services
- Decreased provision of ecosystem services as a result of biodiversity loss is not expected to affect all people in the same way.
- Different stakeholders consume different ecosystem services.
84
What are Planetary Boundaries
Nine variables of high importance to habitability of Earth
- Trying to identify the safe operating space for our planet
85
What are the 9 planetary boundaries
1. Biosphere integrity
2. Climate change
3. Novel Entities
4. Ozone
5. Aerosol
6. Ocean Acidification
7. Biogeochemical flows
8. Freshwater use
9. Land use
86
What are the strongest indicators of the health of the planet
- Climate Change
- Biogeochemical Flows
- Biosphere Integrety
87
Ecosystem Function
The biotic and abiotic processes that occur within an ecosystem.
88
Early Hypotheses of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function Relationship - Each species contributes to ecosystem functioning uniquely
Everyone is special
89
Early Hypotheses of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function Relationship - Loss of a species is compensated by other species
everyone is redundant - Sometimes species you lost have a bigger effects on ecosystem function, but there are some that are easily replaced.
90
Early Hypotheses of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function Relationship - Impact of adding or losing a species is context specific
it depends - sometimes species loss can be a positive thing, but can also be a negative
91
Stability
The ability of a system to return to an equilibrium state after temporary disturbances
- Structure and functions that were there we are always coming back to even after disturbance.
92
Resilience
Ability to recover from disturbance
- About recovery, about time
93
Resistance
Ability to maintain properties with external perturbations
- How far off the baseline did you shift?
94
Persistence
Ability to maintain properties within an acceptable range in spite of environmental fluctuations.
- Systems will fluctuate, but as long as we are maintaining the range it is persistent
- Has alternative stabile states - lost persistence and flips into an alternative state with different requirements
95
Insurance Hypothesis
Diversity increases stability due to increased probability of there being some species able to cope with any disturbance
- Diversity buffers a community from the potential consequences of disturbance, or any environmental change.
96
Alternative stable state
Systems exist in different configurations, and these different configurations represent different equilibrium states
97
Ecological Regime Shift
A sudden and fundamental change in core ecosystem functions and structures that shifts the system from one state to another
98
Tipping Point
The critical threshold at which a small change in an environmental driver can produce an ecological an ecological regime shift.
99
Mechanisms of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function
- Sampling Effect
- Complement
- Facilitation
- Functional Redundancy
- Insurance Hypothesis
100
Mechanisms of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function - Sampling Effect
a greater chance of including a species of greatest inherent productivity in a plot that is more diverse - higher chance of having a highly productive plant in the group
101
Mechanisms of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function - Complement (Niche Partitioning)
Plant species coexistence is thought to be the result of niche partitioning, or differences in resource requirements among species
102
Mechanisms of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function - Facilitation
Mechanisms whereby certain species help or allow other species to grow by modifying the environment in a way that is favorable to co-occurring species
103
Functional Redundancy (Niche Overlap)
Loss of one species creates access to resources for other competing species Assumes:
Asynchrony of species intrinsic responses to disturbance
Differences in the speed at which species respond to disturbance
104
Insurance Hypothesis
Diversity increases stability due to increased probability of there being some species able to cope with any disturbance
Species vary in their response to disturbance
105
Clearcut System
- Harvest areas emulate size, structure, and characteristics of natural disturbances
- Individual trees and clumps left to protect aspects of the original forest
- Applied to shade intolerant tree species
106
Shelterwood System
- Harvest areas emulates small periodic disturbances
- Harvest mature tree in a series of cuts in groups or narrow strips
- Target partial shade trees species
107
Selection System
- Harvest emulates individual trees dying
- Mature, unhealthy or undesirable trees harvested
- Applied to shade tolerant tree species
108
Principals for Biodiversity Conservation in Managed Forest Landscapes
1. Maintenance of Stand Structural Complexity - Stand level structure
2. Maintenance of connectivity - Landscape level structure
3. Maintenance of landscape heterogeneity - Landscape level structure
109
Stand Level Management for Biodiversity
a. Structural retention at time of harvest
b. Management of regenerated stands to create specific structural conditions
c. Lng rotations or cutting cycles to allow enough time for structural features to develop naturally
110
Patch
Relatively homogenous area that differs from surroundings
111
Matrix
Element within the landscape that is most spatially continuous
