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Motor Development > Exam Review > Flashcards

Exam Review Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 3 Contraints

A

Individual Constraints — structural & functional
Environmental Constraints — physical & sociocultural
Task Constraints — rules & equipment

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2
Q

What is a Sociocultural Constraint?

A
  • type of environmental constraint
  • group attitudes affecting individual motor behaviours
  • culturally specific concepts about movement behaviours
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3
Q

Socialization process - What are the 3 major elements influencing choice?

A

1.) Significant others - “socializing agents”
2.) Social situations - places socialization occurs
3.) Personal attributes - individual constraints

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4
Q

Sex vs Gender

A

Sex - male or female biological characteristics
Gender - socially determined masculine or feminine characteristics

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5
Q

Gender Typing

A

When a parent/significant other encourages activities that are deemed “gender appropriate”
- this restricts activity options for boys & girls

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6
Q

Title IX

A

States “no person in the US shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination

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7
Q

Significant Others

A

Are socializing agents like; family, peers, teachers, coaches, & others involved in socialization

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8
Q

Parents

A
  • Most influential in childhood
  • Snyder & Spreitzer (1993) — suggest same-sex parent is most influential on child’s sport involvement
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9
Q

Siblings

A
  • Influence lessens as children age
  • Patterns of family influence varies by social, race, & geographic locations
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10
Q

Peers

A
  • Most important after childhood & in school
  • Strong influence on group activities & team sports
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11
Q

Coaches & Teachers

A
  • must avoid aversive socialization
  • primarily reinforce existing socialization patterns
  • most influential in adolescence & young adult boys & childhood & adolescence girls
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12
Q

Aversive Socialization

A
  • occurs when teachers/coaches; embarrass children, overemphasize performance over enjoyment, & plan activities resulting in failures
  • children who face this avoid physical activities & fail to learn skills
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13
Q

Social Situations

A
  • Are situations where children spend their formative years & are part of the socialization process
  • Includes; environments, games, & toys
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14
Q

How do play environments & games act as constraints?

A
  • lack space & limit opportunities for gross motor activity & gender-typed environments
  • toys may deprive opportunities as well
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15
Q

How can toys act as constraints?

A
  • Toys for boys may be more complex & vigorous
  • Encourage gender roles & lead to gender-typing
  • Parents may promote gender-typing by negatively reinforcing play with gender appropriate toys
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16
Q

What are 3 other sociocultural constraints?

A

1.) Race - biological & relates to genetic similarities within groups
2.) Ethnicity - culturally based constraints & relate to cultural similarities connecting groups
3.) Socioeconomic status - interrelates with race & ethnicity

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17
Q

Psychological Influences as constraints

A
  • individual functional constraints interacting with environmental sociocultural ones
  • constraints may be; emotions, perceived ability, & other personal attributes
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18
Q

What is Self-Esteem

A

An individuals personal judgement of own capability, significance, success, & worthiness
- conveyed to others through words & actions

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19
Q

What develops ones self-esteem?

A
  • social interactions & emotions
  • children under 10 rely on appraisals & comparisons
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20
Q

3 domains self-esteem are based on

A
  • social
  • academic
  • cultural
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21
Q

What are Causal Attributions?

A
  • reasons to which people credit their successes & failures
  • differ for people with high & low self-esteem
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22
Q

What is a domain?

A
  • an independent area or sphere of influence
  • includes; social, physical, or academic domains
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23
Q

High self-esteem causal attributions

A

1.) Internal - person is responsible for own success & failures
2.) Stable - outcome influencing factors are consistent between different situations
3.) Controllable - person’s in control of outcome

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24
Q

Low self-esteem causal attributions

A

1.) External - success & failure are due to influences outside the person
2.) Unstable - outcome based on fluctuating influences
3.) Uncontrollable - person is not in control of outcome

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25
Q

Perceived Motor Competency

A
  • source of behaviours such as participation in physical activity
  • High perceived competence results in high self-esteem, increased performance effort, & actual motor competence
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26
Q

Developmental Relationships - Childhood

A
  • inaccurate perception of actual motor ability
  • effort based on high competence
  • moderate positive relationship between perceived & actual motor competence
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27
Q

Developmental Relationships - Middle Childhood

A
  • perception of motor ability improves
  • boys view their object control skills & motor competence to be higher
  • girls view their locomotor skills as lower than they are
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28
Q

Developmental Relationships - Adolescence

A
  • De Meester 2016 found…
    • low perception, accurate judge of competence
    • low perception, overestimated competence
    • avrg perception, accurate judge of competence
    • avrg perception, overestimated competence
29
Q

Motivation

A
  • related to self-esteem
  • high motivation’s essential for sports & physical activity participation
30
Q

Persistence

A
  • The continued engagement in sport & activity
31
Q

Reasons for persistence in children

A
  • desire to be competent by achieving goals
  • desire to improve skills
  • desire to make friends
  • desire to have fun &
  • desire to increase fitness
32
Q

Dropping Out

A
  • withdrawal from sports & physical activities
  • may be wanting to try new sports but if dropping out of all sports, it may be detrimental
33
Q

Teacher-centred approach

A

Instructor designs & presents developmentally appropriate activities & chooses when to move on

34
Q

Student-centred approach

A

Student has control over engagement-related decisions & effort is connected to outcomes

35
Q

Adult Participation is based on…

A
  • Duda & Tappe 1988-89, participation is based off of;
    • 1.) Personal incentives - desire to compete, maintain health, & be social
    • 2.) Sense of self - relates to self-esteem
    • 3.) Perceived options - opportunities one has in a given situation
36
Q

Limitations for Adult Activity Levels

A
  • Stereotypes
  • Limited access
  • Childhood experiences
  • Lack of knowledge, etc.
37
Q

Motor Skill Capability

A

A person’s potential for skilled motor performance under favourable conditions

38
Q

Practice

A

Repeated attempts to perform a motor skill as a means of skill acquisition

39
Q

Retention Test

A

Used to see if participants retain the ability to produce a specific motor skill after practice has been removed for a period of time

40
Q

Transfer Test

A

Used to see if participants can transfer aspects of a motor skill learned through practice to a new skill

41
Q

2 Time Scales

A

1.) Motor Learning Time Scale - mins, hours, & days
2.) Motor Dev. Time Scale - weeks, months, & years

42
Q

Fitts & Posner’s Model - 1967

A

1.) Cognitive Stage - when individuals 1st learn the motor skill, must understand the movement & they make variable, inconsistent errors
2.) Associative Stage - movements refined, lesser attentional demands, errors corrected
3.) Autonomous Stage - final stage, passive dynamics, learner focuses on game dynamics not execution

43
Q

Degrees of Freedom

A

The # of independent variables (joints, muscles, motor units) that must be controlled when individuals complete a movement

44
Q

Freezing Degrees of Freedom

A

Occurs when novices lock joints that aren’t specifically used in producing a movement
- body acts as 1 unit & actions are more singular than sequential

45
Q

Bernstein’s Freedom Model of Motor Learning - 1967

A
  • Emerged from information processing theoretical perspective
  • Individuals must learn coordination actions with various degrees of freedom
  • 3 stages of learning include;
    1.) Freezing degrees of freedom (limit # of joints moving independantly)
    2.) Releasing degrees of freedom (release tight joints & allow more fluid movements)
    3.) Exploiting degrees of freedom (move efficiently & effectively by adjusting body’s to environment)
46
Q

Varied Practice

A

Practicing using variations of the same skill such as; distance, size, & weight
- Schmidt 1975 - varied practice promotes schema learning

47
Q

Constant practice

A

Practice that repeats the same conditions

48
Q

Augmented Feedback - intrinsic & extrinsic

A

Intrinsic Feedback - from body’s internal sensory receptors resulting from movement

Extrinsic/augmented Feedback - from an external/supplementary source & enriches naturally occurring intrinsic factors

49
Q

Knowledge of Results (KR) - Augmented Feedback

A

Verbal information about the outcome of a motor performance
- can relate specifically to a task goal

50
Q

Knowledge of Performance (KP) - Augmented Feedback

A

Information about how a person moved & can be delivered verbally or by technology (video clip)

51
Q

What are cutaneous receptors for?

A

Sensory receptor in the skin that provide information about touch, temperature, pain, & pressure
- eg.) texture of a softball

52
Q

What are proprioceptors for?

A

Sensory receptor receiving stimuli from within the body, especially regarding position & movement
- eg.) indicating muscle length & tension in arm throwing a ball

53
Q

What are visual receptors for?

A

Receptors that absorb light & start the process that sends visual signals to the brain
- eg.) provide visual info regarding trajectory & end position of the ball

54
Q

What is simple reaction time? SRT

A

The time between the onset of a stimulus & the beginning of a movement response
- improves over the course of childhood & adolescence

55
Q

What is choice reaction time? CRT

A

Is when participants must select the appropriate motor response when suddenly presented with one of several stimuli

56
Q

Children’s Processing Speed

A
  • take longer to process information
  • slower processing speed is related to central processes within CNS such as attention, memory, & response
57
Q

Clark 1982 - speed of light response

A
  • Compatible if light on right came on & right key was pressed & same with left
  • Incompatible if light on right came one & left key was pressed & vice versa
58
Q

Cognitive Processing Speeds in Older Adults

A
  • Simple reaction time begins declining after 50’s
  • more easily distracted so benefit from warning signals
  • movement, speed, and simple & choice reactions slow
59
Q

Der & Deary - 2017

A

Examined the relationship between reaction time & intelligence and how it changes with age
- Found strong negative correlations between IQ and SRT & CRT

60
Q

Active & Inactive Older Adults regarding reaction-time

A
  • Active older adults are more like young adults with respect to simple & choice reaction-time tasks than inactive adults
61
Q

Colcombe & Kramer - 2003

A

Found that fitness training improved cognitive tasks - aerobic & strength training was the best form

62
Q

Manipulating Constraints

A
  • may produce a functional change in movement
  • useful in influencing movement & motor development/behaviour
  • individual constraints are difficult to manipulate
63
Q

How to build inclusive lessons

A
  • Build lessons around the model of constraints
  • Manipulate constraints to allow more proficient skill performance
  • Know a growing class varies in physicality
64
Q

Body scaling

A

Relatively easy way to manipulate task constraints by modifying the equipment & play space in proportion to physical size/strength of the participants

65
Q

How to adapt to Newell’s Triangle

A
  • Change constraints —> teachers/coaches can identify constraints to be changed to elicit desired movements
  • Changes with growth —> as students mature, constraints change in proportion
66
Q

Ecological Task Analyses

A
  • Analyses of how a skill/task is accomplished
  • Focusses on critical components influencing movement
  • Allows for creation of developmentally appropriate lesson plans to asses movement ability
  • Allows evaluation to be based on developmental continuum not right or wrongs
67
Q

Traditional Task Analyses

A
  • movement compared to individual with correct form
  • provides an error model with right or wrong feedback
  • doesn’t account for different individual constraints & environmental and task constraints interacting with it
68
Q

Burton & Davis - 1996

A
  • Outlines 4 steps in creating an ecological task analyses
  • 1.) establish task goal
  • 2.) allow participant to solve task in variety of ways
  • 3.) manipulate participant, environment, or task
  • 4.) provide feedback to aid proficient performance

Motor Development (1 decks)

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