Exam Review Flashcards
What are the 3 Contraints
Individual Constraints — structural & functional
Environmental Constraints — physical & sociocultural
Task Constraints — rules & equipment
What is a Sociocultural Constraint?
- type of environmental constraint
- group attitudes affecting individual motor behaviours
- culturally specific concepts about movement behaviours
Socialization process - What are the 3 major elements influencing choice?
1.) Significant others - “socializing agents”
2.) Social situations - places socialization occurs
3.) Personal attributes - individual constraints
Sex vs Gender
Sex - male or female biological characteristics
Gender - socially determined masculine or feminine characteristics
Gender Typing
When a parent/significant other encourages activities that are deemed “gender appropriate”
- this restricts activity options for boys & girls
Title IX
States “no person in the US shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination
Significant Others
Are socializing agents like; family, peers, teachers, coaches, & others involved in socialization
Parents
- Most influential in childhood
- Snyder & Spreitzer (1993) — suggest same-sex parent is most influential on child’s sport involvement
Siblings
- Influence lessens as children age
- Patterns of family influence varies by social, race, & geographic locations
Peers
- Most important after childhood & in school
- Strong influence on group activities & team sports
Coaches & Teachers
- must avoid aversive socialization
- primarily reinforce existing socialization patterns
- most influential in adolescence & young adult boys & childhood & adolescence girls
Aversive Socialization
- occurs when teachers/coaches; embarrass children, overemphasize performance over enjoyment, & plan activities resulting in failures
- children who face this avoid physical activities & fail to learn skills
Social Situations
- Are situations where children spend their formative years & are part of the socialization process
- Includes; environments, games, & toys
How do play environments & games act as constraints?
- lack space & limit opportunities for gross motor activity & gender-typed environments
- toys may deprive opportunities as well
How can toys act as constraints?
- Toys for boys may be more complex & vigorous
- Encourage gender roles & lead to gender-typing
- Parents may promote gender-typing by negatively reinforcing play with gender appropriate toys
What are 3 other sociocultural constraints?
1.) Race - biological & relates to genetic similarities within groups
2.) Ethnicity - culturally based constraints & relate to cultural similarities connecting groups
3.) Socioeconomic status - interrelates with race & ethnicity
Psychological Influences as constraints
- individual functional constraints interacting with environmental sociocultural ones
- constraints may be; emotions, perceived ability, & other personal attributes
What is Self-Esteem
An individuals personal judgement of own capability, significance, success, & worthiness
- conveyed to others through words & actions
What develops ones self-esteem?
- social interactions & emotions
- children under 10 rely on appraisals & comparisons
3 domains self-esteem are based on
- social
- academic
- cultural
What are Causal Attributions?
- reasons to which people credit their successes & failures
- differ for people with high & low self-esteem
What is a domain?
- an independent area or sphere of influence
- includes; social, physical, or academic domains
High self-esteem causal attributions
1.) Internal - person is responsible for own success & failures
2.) Stable - outcome influencing factors are consistent between different situations
3.) Controllable - person’s in control of outcome
Low self-esteem causal attributions
1.) External - success & failure are due to influences outside the person
2.) Unstable - outcome based on fluctuating influences
3.) Uncontrollable - person is not in control of outcome
Perceived Motor Competency
- source of behaviours such as participation in physical activity
- High perceived competence results in high self-esteem, increased performance effort, & actual motor competence
Developmental Relationships - Childhood
- inaccurate perception of actual motor ability
- effort based on high competence
- moderate positive relationship between perceived & actual motor competence
Developmental Relationships - Middle Childhood
- perception of motor ability improves
- boys view their object control skills & motor competence to be higher
- girls view their locomotor skills as lower than they are
Developmental Relationships - Adolescence
- De Meester 2016 found…
- low perception, accurate judge of competence
- low perception, overestimated competence
- avrg perception, accurate judge of competence
- avrg perception, overestimated competence
Motivation
- related to self-esteem
- high motivation’s essential for sports & physical activity participation
Persistence
- The continued engagement in sport & activity
Reasons for persistence in children
- desire to be competent by achieving goals
- desire to improve skills
- desire to make friends
- desire to have fun &
- desire to increase fitness
Dropping Out
- withdrawal from sports & physical activities
- may be wanting to try new sports but if dropping out of all sports, it may be detrimental
Teacher-centred approach
Instructor designs & presents developmentally appropriate activities & chooses when to move on
Student-centred approach
Student has control over engagement-related decisions & effort is connected to outcomes
Adult Participation is based on…
- Duda & Tappe 1988-89, participation is based off of;
- 1.) Personal incentives - desire to compete, maintain health, & be social
- 2.) Sense of self - relates to self-esteem
- 3.) Perceived options - opportunities one has in a given situation
Limitations for Adult Activity Levels
- Stereotypes
- Limited access
- Childhood experiences
- Lack of knowledge, etc.
Motor Skill Capability
A person’s potential for skilled motor performance under favourable conditions
Practice
Repeated attempts to perform a motor skill as a means of skill acquisition
Retention Test
Used to see if participants retain the ability to produce a specific motor skill after practice has been removed for a period of time
Transfer Test
Used to see if participants can transfer aspects of a motor skill learned through practice to a new skill
2 Time Scales
1.) Motor Learning Time Scale - mins, hours, & days
2.) Motor Dev. Time Scale - weeks, months, & years
Fitts & Posner’s Model - 1967
1.) Cognitive Stage - when individuals 1st learn the motor skill, must understand the movement & they make variable, inconsistent errors
2.) Associative Stage - movements refined, lesser attentional demands, errors corrected
3.) Autonomous Stage - final stage, passive dynamics, learner focuses on game dynamics not execution
Degrees of Freedom
The # of independent variables (joints, muscles, motor units) that must be controlled when individuals complete a movement
Freezing Degrees of Freedom
Occurs when novices lock joints that aren’t specifically used in producing a movement
- body acts as 1 unit & actions are more singular than sequential
Bernstein’s Freedom Model of Motor Learning - 1967
- Emerged from information processing theoretical perspective
- Individuals must learn coordination actions with various degrees of freedom
- 3 stages of learning include;
1.) Freezing degrees of freedom (limit # of joints moving independantly)
2.) Releasing degrees of freedom (release tight joints & allow more fluid movements)
3.) Exploiting degrees of freedom (move efficiently & effectively by adjusting body’s to environment)
Varied Practice
Practicing using variations of the same skill such as; distance, size, & weight
- Schmidt 1975 - varied practice promotes schema learning
Constant practice
Practice that repeats the same conditions
Augmented Feedback - intrinsic & extrinsic
Intrinsic Feedback - from body’s internal sensory receptors resulting from movement
Extrinsic/augmented Feedback - from an external/supplementary source & enriches naturally occurring intrinsic factors
Knowledge of Results (KR) - Augmented Feedback
Verbal information about the outcome of a motor performance
- can relate specifically to a task goal
Knowledge of Performance (KP) - Augmented Feedback
Information about how a person moved & can be delivered verbally or by technology (video clip)
What are cutaneous receptors for?
Sensory receptor in the skin that provide information about touch, temperature, pain, & pressure
- eg.) texture of a softball
What are proprioceptors for?
Sensory receptor receiving stimuli from within the body, especially regarding position & movement
- eg.) indicating muscle length & tension in arm throwing a ball
What are visual receptors for?
Receptors that absorb light & start the process that sends visual signals to the brain
- eg.) provide visual info regarding trajectory & end position of the ball
What is simple reaction time? SRT
The time between the onset of a stimulus & the beginning of a movement response
- improves over the course of childhood & adolescence
What is choice reaction time? CRT
Is when participants must select the appropriate motor response when suddenly presented with one of several stimuli
Children’s Processing Speed
- take longer to process information
- slower processing speed is related to central processes within CNS such as attention, memory, & response
Clark 1982 - speed of light response
- Compatible if light on right came on & right key was pressed & same with left
- Incompatible if light on right came one & left key was pressed & vice versa
Cognitive Processing Speeds in Older Adults
- Simple reaction time begins declining after 50’s
- more easily distracted so benefit from warning signals
- movement, speed, and simple & choice reactions slow
Der & Deary - 2017
Examined the relationship between reaction time & intelligence and how it changes with age
- Found strong negative correlations between IQ and SRT & CRT
Active & Inactive Older Adults regarding reaction-time
- Active older adults are more like young adults with respect to simple & choice reaction-time tasks than inactive adults
Colcombe & Kramer - 2003
Found that fitness training improved cognitive tasks - aerobic & strength training was the best form
Manipulating Constraints
- may produce a functional change in movement
- useful in influencing movement & motor development/behaviour
- individual constraints are difficult to manipulate
How to build inclusive lessons
- Build lessons around the model of constraints
- Manipulate constraints to allow more proficient skill performance
- Know a growing class varies in physicality
Body scaling
Relatively easy way to manipulate task constraints by modifying the equipment & play space in proportion to physical size/strength of the participants
How to adapt to Newell’s Triangle
- Change constraints —> teachers/coaches can identify constraints to be changed to elicit desired movements
- Changes with growth —> as students mature, constraints change in proportion
Ecological Task Analyses
- Analyses of how a skill/task is accomplished
- Focusses on critical components influencing movement
- Allows for creation of developmentally appropriate lesson plans to asses movement ability
- Allows evaluation to be based on developmental continuum not right or wrongs
Traditional Task Analyses
- movement compared to individual with correct form
- provides an error model with right or wrong feedback
- doesn’t account for different individual constraints & environmental and task constraints interacting with it
Burton & Davis - 1996
- Outlines 4 steps in creating an ecological task analyses
- 1.) establish task goal
- 2.) allow participant to solve task in variety of ways
- 3.) manipulate participant, environment, or task
- 4.) provide feedback to aid proficient performance
