Exam review 1 Flashcards
Argument
A group of statements, one or more of which (the premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, one of the others (the conclusion)
Deductive argument
An argument incorporating the claim that it is impossible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true.
Inductive argument
An argument incorporating the claim that it is improbable that the conclusion is false given that the premises are true.
Validity
A deductive argument is valid if and only if it is impossible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true.
Invalidity
A deductive argument in which it is possible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true.
Inferential claim
The claim that the conclusion is supposed to follow from the premises. The logical link between the statements.
Strength
An inductive argument in which it is improbable that the conclusion be false given that the premises are true.
Weakness
An inductive argument in which the conclusion does not follow probably from the premises even though it is claimed to do so.
Sound
A deductive argument that is valid and has all true premises.
Unsound
A deductive argument that is invalid, has one or more false premises, or both.
Cogent
An inductive argument that is strong, has all true premises, and meets the total evidence requirement.
Uncogent
An inductive argument that is weak, has one or more false premises, fails to meet the total evidence requirement, or any combination of these.
Necessary and sufficient conditions (consequent and antecedent)
- The consequent is a component of a conditional statement immediately following the word “then.”
- The antecedent is a component of a conditional statement immediately following the word “if.”
Types of deductive arguments
- Argument based on mathematics
- Argument from definition
- categorical syllogism (each statement begins with one of the words “all,” “no,” or “some.”
- Hypothetical syllogism (has conditional “if…then” for one or both of its premises.
- Disjunctive syllogism (“either…or…” statement)
Types of inductive arguments
- Prediction
- Argument from analogy
- Generalization
- Argument from authority
- Argument based on signs
- Causal inference (knowledge about cause and claim about effect or vice versa).
Types of non-arguments
- Warnings
- Pieces of advice
- Statements of belief
- Statements of opinion
- Loosely associated statements
- Reports
- Expository passage
- illustrations
- explanations
- conditional statements
Fallacy
A defect in an argument that arises from a mistake in reasoning or the creation of an illusion that makes a bad argument appear good.
How to tell whether you have an argument or a non-argument
In deciding whether a passage contains an argument, you should look for three things:
1) indicator words (conclusion)
2) An inferential relationship between the statements
3) Typical kinds of non arguments
- An argument contains 2 things:
1) at least one of the statements must claim to present evidence or reason
2) There must be a claim that the alleged evidence supports or implies something- that is, a claim that something follows from the alleged evidence or reason.
How to isolate premises and conclusions
The statements that make up an argument are divided into one or more premises
and exactly one conclusion.
- Conclusion and premise indicator words
- If no indicators then ask “what single statement is claimed (implicitly) to follow from the others?”
- What is the arguer trying to prove?
- What is the main point?
How to determine what type of argument and its characteristics
Look at certain objective features of the argument.
1) the the occurrence of special indicator words
2) the actual strength of the inferential link between premises and conclusion (deductive = the conclusion follows with strict necessity from the premises. inductive = conclusion does not follow with strict necessity but does follow probability).
3) The form or style of argumentation
How to tell when a fallacy occurs
- Formal fallacy that may be identified by examining the form or structure of an argument (deductive arguments)
- Informal fallacy are those detected by examining the content of an argument.
