Exam Questions Flashcards
smash it in a week
Question 1
a) State the primary function of passive fire protection. (2 marks)
b) Explain how passive fire protection measures contribute to limiting the spread of fire. (4
marks
The primary function of passive fire protection is to:
- Contain the spread of fire, smoke, and heat within a building by using fire-resistant materials and compartmentalization.
- Maintain the structural integrity of the building for a specified period, allowing safe evacuation and giving emergency services time to respond.
Passive fire protection measures are designed to contain and limit the spread of fire without the need for human intervention or automatic systems. Here’s how they contribute:
- Compartmentalization: Fire-resistant walls, floors, and doors divide buildings into compartments. This slows the spread of fire, smoke, and heat, keeping it confined to the area where the fire started.
- Fire-Resistant Materials: These materials (e.g., concrete, gypsum, and intumescent coatings) are used in the construction of buildings to resist fire and prevent it from spreading through structural elements like walls and ceilings.
- Fire-Stopping Barriers: These barriers are installed in joints, gaps, or penetrations, such as where pipes and cables pass through walls. They seal openings and prevent fire and smoke from spreading between compartments.
- Protection of Structural Integrity: Passive fire protection systems, like fireproofing coatings or cladding, are applied to structural components (beams, columns) to maintain their integrity under fire conditions. This prevents collapse and gives occupants more time to evacuate.
Each of these measures works together to contain the fire and give emergency services more time to respond, while also allowing occupants more time to evacuate safely.
For Part a), most candidates scored one mark for correctly stating that passive fire protection
controls the spread of fire and smoke within a given compartment but failed to complete the
statement with ‘for a period of time’.
Describe the process of smouldering combustion. (4 marks)
Some fires start off as smouldering hot spots. These fires do not have a visible flame, do not grow very quickly and do not produce very much heat compared to flaming combustion but can produce very toxic smoke/ gases. Smouldering fires may suddenly turn into full flaming fires and grow very rapidly after sufficient energy has been produced or when airflow speeds up the combustion rate. They are particularly dangerous in fires where people may be asleep, e.g. a hotel.
This question was not well answered. Most candidates did state that smouldering fires have
no visible flame and produce toxic gases but did not mention any of the following:
Smouldering is surface burning.
* Smouldering has a lower rate of heat release than flaming combustion.
* Smouldering fires may make a transition to flaming after sufficient energy has been
produced or when airflow speeds up the combustion rate.
* Smouldering is slower to spread and has weak combustion characteristics.
* Gases can be flammable and can be ignited in gas phase.
* Smouldering occurs in porous materials which form a solid carbonaceous char when
heated.
Describe the fire tetrahedron and explain the implications for extinguishing a fire. (6 marks)
The fire triangle identifies the three elements a fire needs to ignite, i.e. heat, fuel, and oxygen. A fire will naturally occur when these elements are present and combined in the right mixture
A fire can be prevented or extinguished by removing any one of the elements in the fire triangle. For example, in the case of a deep fat fryer catching fire, covering the fryer with a fire blanket, will effectively starve the fire of oxygen, and extinguish it. In other words, by removing the oxygen part of the triangle the fire can no longer be perpetuated. This process is also further described by a second graphical illustration known as the ‘fire tetrahedron’
A tetrahedron essentially consists the four elements that must be present to enable a fire to occur, i.e. fuel, heat, oxygen, and in addition to the fire triangle, a chemical chain reaction.
Once a fire has started, the resulting chain reaction (called an exothermic reaction because heat is released) sustains the fire and allows it to continue until at least one of the elements of the fire is blocked or removed. For example, water can be used to lower the temperature of the fuel below the ignition point or to remove or disperse the fuel, or foam can be employed to deny the fire the oxygen it needs. Alternatively, certain gasses can be used to create a barrier of inert gas in a direct attack on the chemical reaction responsible for the fire.
This question was well answered by the majority of candidates, with many scoring full marks.
In relation to fire development, explain what is meant by the term ‘flashover’ (4 marks)
This is the third stage of fire development, as the fire grows, a hot smoke layer at the ceiling of the room grows in depth, effectively trapped by the walls of the compartment. The radiated heat from this layer rapidly heats the surfaces of those combustible materials directly exposed in the room, causing them to emit flammable gases. When the temperatures of the evolved gases become high enough circa, 600 degrees, these gases will ignite throughout the smoke layer. This almost instantaneous event is known as flashover and is characterised by a very rapid rise in temperature and the involvement of all combustible materials in the room
This question was not well answered. Many candidates appeared to have their own
definition of “Flashover”. Candidates who scored good marks were able to state rapid rise in
temperature, occurred at 600°, and the third stage of fire development.
In terms of product testing, assessment and certification, explain the following:
a) Certification from a Third-Party Certification body. (4 marks)
b) An assessment from an accredited fire test laboratory or suitable qualified fire consultant.
(4 marks)
a) An independent assessment is undertaken by a Certification Body, themselves accredited by the United Kingdom Accreditation Service (UKAS in the UK), declaring that specified requirements pertaining to a product, person, process or management system have been met.
In such situations, the third-party certification body will consider the testing and assessment data supplied but in addition will also:
a) Evaluate performance from range of tests (not just single test) and use these to create a scope of certification which covers the complete product range
b) Access evidence from tests used in assessments to create a scope of certification to cover performance of product range
c) Undertake factory production control audits / inspections of production of the products, typically these will be conducted annually.
d) Require the manufacturer to declare changes to products
e) Require manufacturer to label products sold to aid traceability in case there are any problems Revision 2 2020
f) Undertake ongoing product verification (audit tests / inspections) at predetermined frequencies
b)This level of assessment will offer some of the process required to achieve third-party certification,
such as an evaluation of performance from range of tests (not just a single test), and an assessment
of evidence from tests to enable a ‘field of application’ to be determined. It is the next best thing to
third party certification, but offers none of the quality control aspects.
In so doing the manufacturer will be able to present a comprehensive assessment of the product to
verify both use and limitations of use.
It is however important to ensure that those offering the ‘Assessment’ are qualified to make such a
judgement and can demonstrate their competency to so do.
Part a) was not well answered. Most candidates’ answers included UKAS, Certification
Body, but failed to expand their answers. Part b) was very poorly answered and many
candidates scored only 1or 2 marks.
Good housekeeping is essential to maintain the fire protection provisions.
Describe the steps that building managers can take to ensure that provisions are
maintained. (4 marks)
Monitoring of activities that might affect fire protection measures e.g. maintenance and changes to the building fabric
Inspection of compartmentation particularly when building works are required.
Ensure all materials used have appropriate certification
Ensure all building works are carried out by competent/qualified companies and individuals
Ensure tenants are aware of fire evacuation procedures
Ensure appropriate fire drills are carried out
Ensure policy documents and manuals are in place and up to date
Maintain all fire protection systems and keep appropriate records
Provide and maintain adequate signage
This question was reasonably well answered with candidates picking up at least 50% of the
available marks.
Explain how signage can be used to improve fire safety in a building. (4 marks
Signage is crucial to improving fire safety in a building. Typically there are multiple types of signage and all will contribute. For example, safe condition signs should be installed throughout the building, these will be green and will provide information on fire exit locations etc. Prohibition signs should also be installed for example no smoking signs will warn people not to smoke and in turn improve fire safety as this will eliminate this risk. Warning signs will notify building occupants of any specific risks, these could be risks that directly contribute to a fire. Mandatory signs and fire fighting signs will provide building occupants with information of what to do in the event of a fire and provide locations of any portable fire fighting equipment such as fire extinguishers. Consideration should be given to emergency lighting or use of illuminated signs to improve fire safety as building occupants will be able to see the signs should there be a power failure.
At this level of qualification, it was disappointing that candidates could not properly answer
this question. Some candidates focused on the colour of signs, while others described
illuminated signage. Candidates who scored marks were able to describe:
* Prohibition signs that deter individuals from taking inappropriate / bad actions and / or
alerts them to dangers / hazards.
* Escape routes to enable individuals who are unfamiliar with the building to exit safely.
* Escape equipment signs to provide information for an emergency.
* Assembly point signs to provide information on meeting points in an emergency.
* Mandatory instructions provide information in relation to actions that must be taken to
ensure safety.
* Firefighting equipment location signs provide assistance to firefighting services in an
emergency.
* Warning signs prevent accidents and/or alert people who may be unaware of dangers
that precautions are needed
Identify two different types of sprinkler system and outline a typical building / situation where
each one would be installed. (4 marks)
Wet pipe
These are the most common systems and are used in buildings where there is no risk of freezing.
They are quick to react because water is always in the pipes above the sprinkler heads
Wet systems are required for multi-storey or high-rise buildings and for life safety as well as building
protection.
Alternate
As the name suggest Alternate systems can have the pipes full of water for the summer and be
drained down and filled with air (under pressure) for the winter. This is important for buildings that
are not heated.
Dry pipe
Installed in situations where freezing temperatures may be deemed an issue, a dry pipe sprinkler
system will provide the coverage needed without the risk of burst pipes. The pipes are filled with air
under pressure at all times and the water is held back by the control valve.
When a sprinkler head opens, the drop in air pressure opens the valve and water flows into the
pipework and onto the fire.
This question appeared to confuse many candidates. Some candidates are not aware of the
difference between sprinklers and automatic fire detection systems. Other candidates
described how sprinklers were activated. Some candidates mentioned water mist which was
not what the question required.
Describe the factors that affect the fire resistance of concrete frames and describe two
methods to add additional fire protection. (5 marks)
Generally, most concrete frames constructed within the built environment do not require additional
passive fire protection measures, as they are designed to achieve a specified fire resistance period.
In certain circumstances spalling of the concrete may be considered an issue (for example a road
tunnel), in which case additional passive fire protection measures may be required. Only products
intended and tested to provide the necessary protection for this type of application should be used.
Increasing the thickness of the concrete
Installing additional fire-resistant materials such as gypsum plasterboard.
Candidates did not perform well on this question which is disappointing given the common
use of concrete in buildings. Candidates were, however, able to describe that the thickness
of concrete affected the fire resistance and by increasing the thickness of concrete increased
the fire resistance. Some candidates wrote long answers on why concrete is bad for fire
resistance. Given that concrete is inherently fire resistant, this misunderstanding is worrying.
Describe three passive fire protection measures that may be considered to improve the fire
resistance of timber frames. (6 marks)
This question was well answered by candidates with many scoring full marks.
a) Explain how the thickness of a steel structure affects its fire resistance and the amount of
structural fire protection required. (2 marks)
b) Explain, using examples, how the shape of a steel structure can affect the performance
of fire protection systems. (3 marks)
a) The thickness of steel affects the fire resistance because the thicker the steel the longer it takes to heat up to a critical temperature of 550 degrees. The section factor of steel is used to determine the thickness of intumescent coatings to improve the fire protection. The section factor is A/V
b)The shape of the steel structure can affect the performance of fire protection systems because the intumescent coating will insulate less well on some sections, for example a circular hollow section. As the char expands it may crack due to the circular nature, these cracks will then allow the heat to reach the steel
Part a) was well answered with many candidates scoring full marks.
Part b) was less well answered and most candidates could not describe how the shape of
steel can affect its performance in a fire. Candidates who scored marks were able to
describe how intumescent coating cracked on cellular beams.
Explain why it is considered best practice for sections of steel or structural elements to be
protected by the same fire protection intumescent paint system. (4 marks)
It is considered best practice to protect all sections of steel or structural elements using the same fire protection intumescent paint system for several key reasons:
- Uniform Performance in Fire:
Intumescent paint swells when exposed to high temperatures, creating an insulating layer that protects the steel beneath from the intense heat of a fire. If different sections of steel are coated with different types of intumescent paints, they might expand and insulate at different rates or thicknesses, leading to unequal protection across the structure. Consistency ensures the same rate of expansion and thermal protection. - Consistency in Application:
Using the same intumescent system across all sections simplifies the application process. Different systems might require different application methods, thicknesses, or curing times, leading to potential errors in application if multiple systems are used. A uniform system ensures that applicators follow the same procedure across the entire structure, reducing the risk of uneven or inadequate protection. - Compatibility and Certification:
Most fire protection systems are tested and certified as part of a whole system for specific fire ratings. Mixing different systems may result in uncertainties about the overall fire resistance performance, as they haven’t been tested together. This could affect the ability to meet regulatory or certification requirements. - Simplified Maintenance and Inspections:
When all sections are coated with the same system, maintenance and future inspections become easier. If a building uses multiple intumescent systems, different products will have unique inspection criteria, and any future touch-up work may require identifying and sourcing the specific paint used on each section. Uniformity ensures that inspectors and maintenance teams can follow the same procedures for all parts of the structure.
In general, this question was not well answered although some candidates did demonstrate
an understanding of the principles of not mixing systems, especially as they are not tested
together, and their properties may vary
One of the factors to be taken into account when determining the choice of fire protection
system for different purposes is the level of fire rating required.
State four other factors that would be taken into account. (4 marks
Guidance from manufacturers
The robustness required
Junctions between different fire protection systems
Potential future adaptations
Correct installation
Regulatory requirements
Aesthetics
Whether it would be subject to environmental exposure such as humidity or temperature changes.
Although many candidates stated that aesthetics and robustness are two of the factors to be
taken into account, some candidates focussed on occupancy numbers and the use and
height of the building. Some candidates stated fire rating even though that factor was given
in the question.
a) Explain how composite floors behave in a fire. (4 marks)
b) Describe the factors affecting the fire resistance of concrete. (2 marks)
a) Composite floors generally consist of a profiled metal deck with a poured concrete topping which can perform differently in fire, because the metal base will conduct heat from fire laterally, and in so doing the metal face will attempt to expand. The rate of temperature increase in the critical parts of the floor may be lessened compared to concrete alone, however the composite floor will also be fixed through shear connectors to the supporting steel structure. During the fire, steam formed in the concrete may force out the metal decking, distorting it and causing gaps and subsequent failure, and whilst the steel reinforcement will transfer the load and the heat from fire, the composite structure may ultimately deform under the heat and sag under the load of the concrete.
b) The fire resistance of concrete is affected by the following factors:
Concrete Composition: The type of aggregate (e.g., limestone, siliceous, or lightweight aggregates) and the cement content can influence how well concrete resists high temperatures. Denser aggregates tend to have better fire resistance properties.
Thickness and Density: The thickness of the concrete section plays a crucial role. Thicker concrete takes longer to heat up and lose its strength during a fire. Additionally, denser concrete generally provides better insulation, slowing down heat transmission and maintaining structural integrity for longer periods.
Part a) was not well answered, with many candidates stating that concrete exploded when
the water content expanded.
Candidates did not perform well in Part b) with many stating that only the thickness of
concrete affected its fire resistance.
Describe four factors that influence the fire resistance of glazing systems when used as non-loadbearing compartment walls. (4 marks)
Four factors that influence the fire resistance of glazing systems when used as non-loadbearing compartment walls are:
- Maximum Pane Area: The size of the glass pane can affect its fire resistance. Larger panes may be more prone to breakage under high thermal stress compared to smaller ones, reducing their effectiveness in containing fire.
- Glass Pane Aspect Ratio: The proportion between the height and width of the glass pane plays a role in how well it can resist fire. Certain ratios may create stress points that can lead to faster breakage during exposure to high temperatures.
- Type of Glazing Seal: The seals used around the glass impact fire resistance. High-quality fire-resistant seals prevent the passage of smoke and heat, maintaining the integrity of the compartment.
- Frame Material: The material used for the frame is critical. Frames made from fire-resistant materials, such as steel or aluminum, are designed to maintain their structural integrity under fire conditions, supporting the glazing system’s overall performance.
These factors help ensure the effectiveness of glazing systems in maintaining compartmentalization and preventing fire spread.
This question was very poorly answered with most candidates scoring no marks. Candidates
focussed their answers on the type of fire glass installed in buildings. Some candidates
stated that glazing systems would not be used as non-load bearing compartment walls.
Answers should have included any four of the following:
* Maximum pane area.
* Glass pane aspect ratio.
* Type of glazing seal.
* Frame material.
* Frame design and construction.
* Type and shape of beads.
* Extent of glass edge cover (for example, for modified toughened soda-lime glass).
* Type location and application of fixings for both frame and beads.
* Type of door materials and construction
a) Explain how fire resisting ceilings contribute to the fire resistance of a building. (2 marks)
b) State the performance requirements of a fire resisting ceiling installed below a cavity. (3
marks
a) How Fire Resisting Ceilings Contribute to the Fire Resistance of a Building (2 marks):
Fire resisting ceilings contribute to the fire resistance of a building by:
1. Providing a barrier to fire and heat: They help prevent the spread of fire from one floor to another, limiting vertical fire spread and protecting areas above the ceiling from fire damage.
- Maintaining structural integrity: Fire resisting ceilings help protect critical structural elements like floor joists or beams from heat, delaying potential collapse and giving occupants more time to evacuate and emergency services more time to respond.
b) Performance Requirements of a Fire Resisting Ceiling Installed Below a Cavity (3 marks):
- Fire and Smoke Barrier: The ceiling must prevent fire and smoke from passing through into the cavity for a specified period, maintaining the fire integrity of the compartment.
- Support Load: The ceiling should maintain its structural integrity under fire conditions, supporting any imposed load or pressure that may result from the fire above or below the cavity.
- Prevent Heat Transfer: The ceiling must limit the transfer of heat into the cavity, preventing the spread of fire to adjacent areas and delaying the ignition of materials within or above the cavity.
A fire resisting ceiling may be defined as an interior surface that covers the upper limits of a room, and generally is not considered a structural element, but a finished surface concealing the underside of the roof structure or the floor of a storey above. Typically, such ceilings are suspended from the structural elements above, to enable pipework or ducts to be run in the gap above the ceiling. Such ceilings are generally constructed from gypsum, stone wool or calcium silicate-based products supported on a lightweight steel framework.
a) How Fire Resisting Ceilings Contribute to the Fire Resistance of a Building (2 marks): Fire-resisting ceilings play a key role in:
Compartmentation: They help prevent the spread of fire and smoke between different floors or areas within a building by acting as a fire-resistant barrier. This containment limits fire damage to a localized area.
Protecting Structural Elements: Fire-resisting ceilings provide protection to the structural elements above, such as steel beams or timber joists, by slowing down heat transfer and delaying structural failure during a fire.
b) Performance Requirements of a Fire Resisting Ceiling Installed Below a Cavity (3 marks):
Maintaining Integrity: The ceiling must be capable of preventing fire and smoke from penetrating through the ceiling into the cavity space above for a specified period, typically 30, 60, or 120 minutes.
Thermal Insulation: It should provide sufficient insulation to limit the temperature rise on the unexposed side of the ceiling, ensuring that the cavity remains a safe area and preventing heat transfer that could ignite materials within the cavity.
Durability and Stability: The ceiling must remain structurally stable during a fire, ensuring it does not collapse or deteriorate, thus continuing to function as a barrier throughout the designated fire resistance period.
Not break or collapse during the early stages of a fire when evacuation and rescue operations can still be carried out.
Prevent surface spread of flame
Provide a period of fire resistance to protect the services that are likely running above the ceiling.
Stop fire passing through them either by flames or by heat conduction.
Part a) was well answered with many candidates achieving full marks. Part b) was not well answered.
State five performance factors that are taken into account when determining whether or not fire resisting partitions are fit for purpose. (5 marks)
Very few candidates scored any marks for this question. Candidates focussed on the fire
resistance of the partitions when answers should have included:
* Partition stiffness.
* Damage by impact from a large soft body.
* Surface damage by small body impact resistance.
* Perforation by small body impact resistance.
* Resistance to structural damage by multiple impacts from a large soft body.
* Effects of door slamming.
* Resistance to crowd pressure.
* Anchorage pull-out and pull down resistance.
* Heavyweight anchorage eccentric downward load resistance.
a) Explain the purpose of fire stopping. (2 marks)
b) State four factors to be considered when selecting and installing fire stopping in a
building. (4 marks)
a) Purpose of Fire Stopping (2 marks): Fire stopping is used to seal gaps, joints, and openings in walls, floors, and ceilings to prevent the spread of fire, smoke, and toxic gases between compartments in a building. It ensures that fire does not pass through these penetrations, maintaining the integrity of fire-rated barriers and aiding in fire containment, which protects the structure and allows for safe evacuation.
b) Four Factors to be Considered When Selecting and Installing Fire Stopping (4 marks):
Compatibility with Building Materials: The fire-stopping material must be compatible with the surrounding materials, such as concrete, steel, or timber, to ensure proper adhesion and effectiveness.
Fire Resistance Rating: The selected fire stopping should match the fire resistance requirements of the compartment, ensuring that it provides the same duration of protection (e.g., 30, 60, 120 minutes).
Type of Penetrations: The nature of the penetrations (e.g., pipes, cables, ducts) and their size must be considered, as different fire stopping systems (e.g., sealants, intumescent materials) may be required for different types of openings.
Ease of Inspection and Maintenance: The system should allow for easy inspection and, if necessary, future maintenance, ensuring that the fire stopping remains effective throughout the building’s lifespan without causing significant disruption.
These factors ensure that fire stopping is properly installed and remains effective in maintaining compartmentation during a fire.
For Part a), most candidates were only able to score 1 mark for this question, stating fire
stopping is used between floors and walls. Part b) was not well answered and although
some candidates scored marks for stating fire resistance and the use of load bearing seals,
the remaining factors were not mentioned.
In relation to the construction and design of the building envelope, describe how the use of
cladding can affect fire resistance. (4 marks)
The use of cladding in the construction and design of the building envelope can affect fire resistance in the following ways:
Flammability of Cladding Materials: The type of materials used in the cladding system significantly impacts fire resistance. Cladding made from non-combustible materials, such as certain types of metal or stone, will provide better fire resistance, while cladding made from combustible materials (e.g., certain plastic composites) can accelerate the spread of fire.
Fire Spread Between Building Levels: Poorly designed or installed cladding systems can create air gaps or cavities, which can act as a chimney, allowing fire to spread rapidly between different floors of the building. This compromises the compartmentation of the building.
Fire Protection Layer: Cladding systems can be designed to act as an additional fire protection layer by incorporating fire-resistant materials, such as fire-rated insulation or intumescent layers, that help to prevent fire from reaching the underlying structure.
Interaction with Fire Stopping: Cladding systems need to be designed to work effectively with fire-stopping measures at junctions, openings, and joints. If cladding systems do not allow for proper fire stopping, they can create weaknesses where fire can breach the building envelope.
In summary, the fire resistance of the building envelope is heavily influenced by the choice of cladding materials, their design, and how they interact with fire-stopping and compartmentation systems.
It was particularly disappointing that this question was very poorly answered especially
taking into account the high profile that the use of cladding has received in recent years. No
candidate achieved good marks and most scored no marks at all.
Describe the factors to be considered when carrying out the installation of dampers. (4 marks
Manufacturers installation instructions should be followed
Details may differ depending on the wall/floor construction
It is important that the dampers are appropriately supported and restrained back to the building element or adjacent structure through which it penetrates in a manner that maintains the support and restraint function in a fire condition and accommodates thermal movement in the cold state.
Dampers must also be in line with the building element unless the manufacturer has test data to the relevant part of EN 1366 that permits an ‘out of line’ installation.
Ensure there is adequate access to the damper for future maintenance
Although there are a lot of factors to select from, this question was not well answered.
Candidates focused on fire resistance, fitted by a competent person. Answers should have
included fitted in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions, securely fitted, access and its
actuating mechanism and many others.
Describe the differences between a fire damper and a smoke control damper. (6 marks)
Fire dampers and smoke control dampers serve different purposes in fire safety systems, and they have distinct characteristics:
- Purpose:
Fire Damper: A fire damper is designed to prevent the spread of fire through ductwork and between compartments within a building. It automatically closes when it detects heat, thus isolating fire within a specific area.
Smoke Control Damper: A smoke control damper is primarily used to manage the movement of smoke during a fire. It regulates smoke flow to maintain tenable conditions for evacuation and fire-fighting efforts, often working in conjunction with smoke control systems. - Activation Mechanism:
Fire Damper: Activated by heat (usually above a specified temperature) through a fusible link or an electronic control system. Once activated, the damper closes to contain fire and hot gases.
Smoke Control Damper: May be activated by smoke detectors, manual controls, or building management systems that detect smoke presence. These dampers can open or close based on the smoke control strategy in place. - Construction and Design:
Fire Damper: Typically constructed with fire-resistant materials and includes a mechanism to close tightly against the duct, minimizing the passage of heat and flames. Fire dampers often have a fire resistance rating (e.g., 30, 60, or 90 minutes).
Smoke Control Damper: While also built to withstand heat, smoke dampers may have greater flexibility in their design to allow for partial opening and closing, depending on the smoke management strategy. They may not necessarily have a fire rating like fire dampers. - Location and Installation:
Fire Damper: Installed at the intersections of ducts and fire-rated walls or floors to block fire from passing through these barriers. They are crucial for maintaining the integrity of fire-rated compartments.
Smoke Control Damper: Installed in various locations within the duct system to direct and control smoke movement. They are often used in conjunction with smoke extraction or pressurization systems in specific areas, such as stairwells or atriums. - Regulation and Testing:
Fire Damper: Must comply with fire safety codes and standards, including regular testing to ensure that they function properly during a fire.
Smoke Control Damper: Also regulated but may have different testing criteria focused on their ability to respond to smoke presence and ensure proper airflow management. - Response to Fire Conditions:
Fire Damper: Primarily concerned with stopping flames and heat from passing through ductwork; once closed, it remains closed to contain fire.
Smoke Control Damper: Focuses on controlling smoke flow; it can open and close as needed to allow smoke to be vented out or contained, depending on the smoke control strategy in place.
The question was reasonably well answered and most candidates appeared to understand
the differences between fire dampers and smoke control dampers, although some
candidates got them the wrong way around and scored no marks.
State two methods for providing fire resistance to a steel duct and give one example of each.
(4 marks)
two methods for providing fire resistance to a steel duct, along with examples for each, are:
Intumescent Coatings:
Description: Intumescent coatings are paint-like materials that swell when exposed to high temperatures, creating an insulating layer that protects the steel from heat.
Example: A water-based intumescent paint applied to the exterior of a steel duct to achieve a fire resistance rating of 60 minutes.
Fire-Resistant Board or Cladding:
Description: Installing fire-resistant boards or cladding around the duct can provide a physical barrier that protects the steel from fire exposure.
Example: The use of gypsum board or calcium silicate board to encase the steel duct, which can provide up to 120 minutes of fire resistance when installed properly.
Steel ductwork can either be coated in fire rated paint or not (for example intumescent, ablative or cementitious). Coated with fire rated paint will provide the duct with stability and integrity properties only. In order to provide insulation properties, the steel ductwork will need to be boxed in using fire rated materials such as calcium silicate or vermiculite boards. By applying both of the above will ensure it is fully fire resisting.
Fire dampers are used to prevent fire and smoke spreading from one compartment to another through the ductwork that penetrates walls and floors. Normally, the fire damper is open, but in a fire, it closes. Fire Dampers can be activated by a fusible link or can be intumescent dampers that expand and close the duct when exposed to heat.
This question was well answered with most candidates scoring full marks.
Describe three situations when an automatic door hold open/closure device should operate.
(3 marks
In all cases, the automatic device should release the fire-resisting door allowing it to close effectively within its frame (latching securely if a latch is fitted) when any of the following conditions occur:
* The detection of smoke by an automatic detector
* The actuation of the fire detection/alarm system by manual means e.g. operation of break glass call point
* Any failure of the fire detection and alarm system
* Any electrical power failure
Three situations when an automatic door hold open/closure device should operate are:
Fire Alarm Activation: The device should release the door to close automatically when a fire alarm is activated. This ensures that fire-resisting doors seal off areas to contain smoke and fire, preventing them from spreading to other parts of the building.
Power Failure: In the event of a power failure, the automatic door hold open device should trigger the door to close. This is critical for maintaining safety and fire compartmentation in case of an emergency when electrical systems may fail.
Manual Release by Emergency Personnel: The device should be operable to close automatically if manually activated by emergency personnel (e.g., firefighters). This allows for quick compartmentalization of fire and smoke, ensuring that emergency responders can manage the situation effectively without risk of exposure to hazardous conditions.
This question was well answered. It appears some candidates misread this question and
described how fire doors operated and where fire doors should be located.
Give three examples when an acoustically operated hold open device would not be
appropriate. (3 marks)
An acoustically-activated door release mechanism complying with BS EN 1155 may be installed in some cases. However, this type of hold-open device is not suitable for use where:
* The premises do not have a fire alarm system
* The door is a fire door serving the only escape staircase in the building (or the only escape staircase serving part of the building)
* The initial fire alarm warning signal is intended to alert staff only
* The fire alarm sounders may be muted, or the sound level reduced
* The fire alarm system incorporates a voice alarm.
This question was very poorly answered. Most candidates did not score any marks for this
question. Answers should have included in premises with no fire alarm, in conditions where
the fire alarm is muted. Many candidates incorrectly stated where acoustically operated hold
open devices should be located
Explain the purpose of air transfer grills in fore doors and explain how these would operate in
a fire situation. (3 marks)
In normal use, air transfer grills allow air to be circulated and moved throughout the building, however during a fire such grills are designed to close and provide a fire barrier to restrict the passage of fire and hot gases. Such grills may be constructed with an intumescent component that will expand under fire to restrict fire and hot gases, however such systems will not prevent the passage of cold smoke. In such situations, for example a fire door protecting a means of escape, the air transfer grille will also need to be of a type that can be linked to a suitable fire detection/alarm system to enable the grille to close thereby inhibiting the passage of cold smoke.
Purpose of Air Transfer Grills in Fire Doors (1 mark)
Air transfer grills are designed to allow controlled airflow between different compartments in a building while maintaining fire-resistance ratings. They facilitate ventilation and help balance air pressure, which can prevent the buildup of smoke and ensure comfort and safety for occupants.
Operation in a Fire Situation (2 marks)
Automatic Closure: In the event of a fire, air transfer grills are equipped with mechanisms (such as thermal links or smoke detectors) that cause them to automatically close. This closure prevents the passage of smoke and fire from one compartment to another, thereby maintaining the integrity of the fire barrier.
Smoke Containment: Once closed, the grills help contain smoke within the affected area, reducing its spread to escape routes and other compartments. This is crucial for protecting occupants and providing safe evacuation paths.
Overall, air transfer grills play a dual role: facilitating ventilation under normal conditions and enhancing fire safety during emergencies.
Many candidates scored only 2 marks for this question. Answers should have included the
grill allowed air to circulate and the intumescent swells to seal against fire spread.
Describe three checks that would be carried out prior to installing the door frame for a fire
door. (3 marks)
The door frame should be free from damage
It should be suitable for the required fire rating
Should be compatible with the door assembly/doorset
BWF-Certificate label/s on frame (if applicable) undamaged
Check if relevant instructions for fitting are available
Ensure competent/trained staff are employed to carry out the fitting
Check the frame is suitable for the construction installation (masonry wall etc.)
Before installing the door frame for a fire door, the following three checks should be carried out:
Compliance with Fire Ratings: Verify that the door frame is certified and rated for fire resistance according to relevant standards (e.g., BS 476, EN 1634). Ensure that both the frame and the door itself have matching fire resistance ratings to maintain the integrity of the fire barrier.
Structural Integrity: Check the structural condition of the wall or opening where the fire door frame will be installed. Ensure that there are no cracks, damage, or signs of deterioration that could compromise the frame’s stability or the overall fire performance of the installation.
Correct Dimensions and Fit: Measure the dimensions of the door opening to confirm that the door frame is the appropriate size. Ensure that the frame will fit properly within the opening, allowing for the necessary clearances and space for intumescent seals or other fire protection measures. This ensures a proper seal when the door is closed, which is critical for fire resistance.
These checks are essential to ensure that the fire door frame is installed correctly and will function effectively in the event of a fire.
Most candidates attracted maximum marks for this question although there were some
whose answers related to fire doors and not the frame
a) State the elements of the fire tetrahedron. (4 marks)
b) Explain the term ‘exothermic reaction’. (1 mark)
a) Many candidates were able to describe the 3 elements of oxygen, heat and fuel but
failed to describe the fourth element correctly as Chemical Chain Reaction.
b) Candidates struggled to explain the term ‘exothermic reaction correctly:
Exothermic reactions are reactions that release energy into the environment in the form
of light or heat.
Explain the dangers associated with smoke inhalation. (3 marks)
he dangers associated with smoke inhalation include:
Toxic Gas Exposure: Smoke contains a variety of toxic gases, such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, and volatile organic compounds. Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin in the blood more effectively than oxygen, reducing the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity and leading to asphyxiation. Hydrogen cyanide is particularly deadly, as it interferes with cellular respiration.
Respiratory Damage: Inhalation of smoke can cause severe irritation and damage to the respiratory tract, including the throat, lungs, and airways. This can lead to symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, and difficulty breathing. Prolonged exposure can result in conditions like acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or chronic lung diseases.
Most candidates scored good marks for this question.
Describe two ways in which regular fire drills and alarm tests can affect behaviour in a fire. (2
marks)
Regular fire drills and alarm tests can affect behavior in a fire in the following ways:
Familiarization with Procedures: Conducting regular fire drills helps individuals become familiar with evacuation routes, assembly points, and emergency procedures. This familiarity can reduce panic and confusion during an actual fire, leading to a quicker and more organized response, as people know what actions to take and where to go.
Improved Response Time: Regular testing of fire alarms and participation in drills can enhance individuals’ confidence and responsiveness to fire alarms. Knowing that the alarms are functional and that drills are part of safety training encourages people to take alarms seriously and react promptly, rather than hesitating or ignoring the alarm during a real emergency.
Most candidates scored full marks for this question. A lot of candidates failed to state that
‘complacency can set in’ which can affect behaviour during fire alarm tests
a) Define the term ‘means of escape’ (2 marks)
b) Define the term ‘travel distance’ (2 marks)
a) Many candidates could not define ‘means of escape’. Most candidates failed to answer:
Structural means whereby a safe route is provided for people to travel from any location
in a building or structure to a place of safety without the need of outside assistance.
b) Many candidates could not define the term ‘travel distance’. A few candidates stated it was
the “time to travel to a place of safety”. Successful candidates stated:
* The actual distance a person needs to travel from any point within a building to the
nearest storey exit having regard to the layout of walls, partitions, and fittings.
In relation to fire resistance, explain what is meant by the term ‘integrity’ and describe the
factors that affect integrity. (4 marks)
Meaning of ‘Integrity’ in Fire Resistance
In the context of fire resistance, the term ‘integrity’ refers to a fire-resisting element’s ability to prevent the passage of flames and hot gases through openings, joints, or gaps during a fire. A structure or component is said to maintain its integrity if it does not allow fire or smoke to breach fire barriers, thereby containing the fire within designated areas and providing safety for occupants and emergency responders.
Factors Affecting Integrity
Material Quality: The quality and type of materials used in fire-resisting elements play a crucial role in maintaining integrity. Materials that are specifically designed for fire resistance, such as fire-rated gypsum board or steel with intumescent coatings, contribute to the overall performance in preventing fire spread.
Construction and Installation: The way fire-resisting elements are constructed and installed can impact their integrity. Proper alignment, sealing of joints, and adherence to manufacturer specifications are vital. Poor installation, such as gaps or improper anchoring, can compromise the effectiveness of fire barriers.
Temperature and Duration of Exposure: The intensity of the fire and the duration of exposure to high temperatures can affect the integrity of fire-resisting elements. If exposed to extreme heat for an extended period, even well-designed elements may fail, leading to potential breaches in fire containment.
Maintenance and Condition: Regular maintenance is essential to ensure that fire-resisting elements remain effective over time. Damage, wear, or deterioration of materials (e.g., from water leaks or physical impact) can negatively affect their integrity, allowing smoke or flames to penetrate.
Understanding these factors is crucial for designing and maintaining effective fire protection systems in buildings, ensuring safety during fire incidents.
This question was not well answered by candidates. Most candidates were able to explain that
the integrity ensure no gaps appeared to allow the penetration of hot fire gases. The other
factors should have included penetrations through floors/walls, and methods of fire stopping
Identify the factors that affect the way a material behaves in fire. (4 marks)
he way a material behaves in fire is influenced by several key factors:
Material Composition: The chemical composition of a material determines its flammability and combustion properties. For instance, materials with high organic content (like wood and plastics) are more likely to ignite and burn quickly, while non-combustible materials (like concrete and metal) are more resistant to fire.
Thickness and Density: The thickness and density of a material affect its ability to absorb heat and resist fire. Thicker and denser materials can provide better insulation and take longer to reach temperatures that lead to failure or combustion, thus enhancing fire resistance.
Moisture Content: The moisture content within a material can significantly influence its behavior in fire. Materials with higher moisture content (like certain types of wood) can require more heat energy to ignite, as the moisture must evaporate before the material can catch fire. Conversely, dry materials are more prone to ignition.
Thermal Properties: The thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity of a material determine how quickly it absorbs heat and how it conducts that heat throughout its structure. Materials with low thermal conductivity may resist the spread of heat, while those with high thermal conductivity can facilitate faster heat transfer, affecting how they respond in fire situations.
These factors collectively determine how materials react in a fire, influencing their combustion characteristics, integrity, and overall fire performance.
Some candidates were able to identify the factors which affect how a material behaves in a
fire. A few candidates’ answers were related to how concrete was affected by fire.
Explain why it is important to consider passive fire protection as part of the initial design and
brief for a building. (4 marks)
This question was poorly answered. A number of candidates referred to the building’s fire
strategy, while some referred to the role of a fire engineer. The examiners were seeking
answers such as:
* To ensure means of protection/adequate escape time is built in.
* To ensure mechanism to protect content is built in.
* To make sure that work is carried out in the correct order.
* To make sure that the correct materials are purchased/used.
* To make sure correct checks are carried out at the right time.
* To ensure compliance with regulations.
a) Explain what is meant by the term “active fire protection” (2 marks)
b) Describe two different types of fire suppression equipment available within a building
and give an example of where such systems might be used. (4 marks)
Explanation of “Active Fire Protection” (2 marks)
Active fire protection refers to systems and measures that actively engage to detect, control, or extinguish a fire once it occurs. These systems typically include fire detection (such as alarms), suppression systems (such as sprinklers), and fire extinguishers, which require activation either automatically or manually. The primary goal of active fire protection is to mitigate fire risks and protect lives and property by intervening during a fire incident.
b)
Gaseous Fire Suppression
Inert gas suppression system
Such systems are designed to suppress a fire by reducing the oxygen concentration to below 15%, where most combustible materials will not burn. Life is sustainable at these levels and healthy people would not notice any adverse effects
Clean chemical gas suppression system
Synthetic or chemical agents are blended man-made gases, which work by absorbing heat rather than oxygen in the form of a cooling mechanism.
Water Suppression Systems
Wet, Dry and Combined Sprinkler Systems. All 3 sprinkler systems use water to suppress a fire. All have a network of pipes that spread throughout a building and are usually activated when an area reaches a certain temperature. Wet systems are constantly filled with water, so water is dispersed instantaneously. Dry systems are used when there is a risk of freezing as the water isn’t constantly in the network of pipes. Combined systems offers the flexibility of both wet and dry, wet usually used during summer months and dry in the winter when at risk of freezing.
Two Types of Fire Suppression Equipment (4 marks)
Sprinkler Systems:
Description: Automatic sprinkler systems are designed to detect heat from a fire and release water to suppress the flames. They consist of a network of pipes with sprinkler heads that activate based on temperature.
Example of Use: These systems are commonly used in commercial buildings, such as offices and shopping malls, where they can quickly suppress fires and minimize damage, allowing for safer evacuation and protection of property.
Fire Extinguishers:
Description: Fire extinguishers are portable devices filled with various agents (such as water, foam, dry powder, or CO2) that can be used to manually extinguish small fires. Different extinguishers are designed for specific types of fires (Class A, B, C, etc.).
Example of Use: Fire extinguishers are often placed in residential settings, such as kitchens or garages, where the risk of fire is higher due to cooking equipment or flammable materials. They allow occupants to respond quickly to small fires before they escalate.
These active fire protection measures are essential for enhancing safety and effectively managing fire risks in various environments.
a) Most candidates only received one mark for this question. Many candidates failed to
state that “active fire protection” was not built into the fabric of the building.
b) Some candidates were able to describe two types of fire suppression systems. A few
candidates appeared not to understand the term ‘fire suppression’, their answers
included fire alarms, smoke detection, and dampers.
Explain how signage can be used to improve fire safety in a building. (4 marks)
Signage is crucial to improving fire safety in a building. Typically there are multiple types of signage and all will contribute. For example:
safe condition signs should be installed throughout the building, these will be green and will provide information on fire exit locations etc.
Prohibition signs should also be installed for example no smoking signs will warn people not to smoke and in turn improve fire safety as this will eliminate this risk.
Warning signs will notify building occupants of any specific risks, these could be risks that directly contribute to a fire.
Mandatory signs and fire fighting signs will provide building occupants with information of what to do in the event of a fire and provide locations of any portable fire fighting equipment such as fire extinguishers.
Consideration should be given to emergency lighting or use of illuminated signs to improve fire safety as building occupants will be able to see the signs should there be a power failure.
Overall, this question was not well answered. A few candidates struggled to explain how
signage can be used to improve fire safety in a building:
* Prohibition signs that prevent individuals taking inappropriate/bad actions and/or alerts
them to dangers/hazards.
* Escape routes to enable individuals who are unfamiliar with the building to exit safely.
* Escape equipment signs to provide information for an emergency.
* Assembly point signs to provide information on meeting points in an emergency.
* Mandatory instructions provide information in relation to actions that must be taken to
ensure safety.
* Firefighting equipment location signs provide assistance to firefighting services in an
emergency.
* Warning signs prevent accidents and/or alert people who may be unaware of dangers
that precautions are needed.
Explain what is meant by the term “responsible person” in the context of fire safety and state
three of the activities that a responsible person should carry out. (4 marks
Meaning of “Responsible Person” in Fire Safety
In the context of fire safety, the term “responsible person” refers to the individual designated to ensure that fire safety measures are implemented and maintained within a building or premises. This person is typically accountable for managing fire safety procedures, ensuring compliance with fire safety regulations, and protecting the safety of occupants. The responsible person may be an employer, building owner, manager, or designated safety officer.
Three Activities that a Responsible Person Should Carry Out (4 marks)
Conducting Fire Risk Assessments: The responsible person should regularly perform fire risk assessments to identify potential hazards, evaluate risks, and implement appropriate measures to mitigate those risks. This involves reviewing the building layout, materials, and any activities that could contribute to fire hazards.
Developing and Implementing Fire Safety Procedures: The responsible person should establish and communicate fire safety policies and procedures to ensure that all occupants are aware of their roles in the event of a fire. This includes creating evacuation plans, conducting drills, and ensuring that procedures are clearly documented and accessible.
Maintaining Fire Safety Equipment: The responsible person must ensure that all fire safety equipment (e.g., fire extinguishers, alarms, and sprinkler systems) is regularly inspected, maintained, and serviced according to regulatory requirements. This includes keeping records of inspections and any necessary repairs to ensure functionality during an emergency.
These activities are essential for creating a safe environment and ensuring compliance with fire safety legislation.
This question was poorly answered by many candidates. They appeared not to know who a
‘Responsible Person’ is in the terms of fire safety/legislation. Several candidates referred to
the duties of a Fire Marshal.
Describe the passive fire protection measures that may be considered to improve the fire
resistance of timber frames. (4 marks
Surface preparations - Painted with intumescent coating that provides a layer of insulation to protect the material. Also know as char. Limits the surface spread of flame.
Impregnation - Pre-treated timber manufactured off site. The process involves driving the flame retardant into the timber. This type of timber shouldn’t be machined, planed or sanded on site during construction as it will remove the protection. Typically carried out in controlled environments within a vacuum.
Timber is know to have a measurable rate of char and this is used in order to design buildings that in most cases satisfy fire resistance requirements. The size and type of timber will dictate the level of resistance to fire of a timber element. In some circumstances timber structures can be further protected by the addition of appropriately fire tested products and systems
Exposed timber sections can be designed with additional ‘sacrificial’ timber to a section, so that the part exposed to fire can protect the inner material from fire damage while the outer part chars at a slow, predictable rate. Where this is not the case, structural elements, including mechanical fasteners, can be insulated from heat by covering them with one or more layers of fire resisting insulating material, for example gypsum plasterboard or a calcium silicate board, of a specified thickness. The thickness of the fire protective layer will be governed by the density and makeup of the structural element, e.g. solid timber, glulam, Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) etc
Many candidates were only able to describe 2 types of passive fire protection measures to
protect timber frames. Many candidates failed to identify impregnation and additional sacrificial
timber.Surface preparations.
Intumescent coatings applied to the surface that react to heat to form an insulating layer or “char”. By blocking heat and oxygen they limit the level of combustion and surface spread of flame.
Impregnations
Usually offsite/factory based treatments that are designed to drive the flame retardant into the timber often involving vacuum or pressurised application techniques. Impregnations can improve the surface spread of flame and general “reaction to fire” performance. Timber should not be machined, planed or sanded once the treatment has been added as this will remove the protection that is in the surface layer of the timber.
a) Explain how the thickness of a steel structure affects its fire resistance and the
amount of structural fire protection required. (2 marks)
b) Explain, using examples, how the shape of a steel structure can affect the
performance of fire protection systems. (2 marks)
c) Explain what is meant by “section factor” and state the formula. (3 marks)
KP -
a) Thickness of Steel Structure and Fire Resistance
The thickness of a steel structure plays a crucial role in its fire resistance. Thicker steel sections have a greater thermal mass, which means they can absorb and dissipate heat more effectively than thinner sections. This allows the steel to maintain its structural integrity for a longer period during a fire. Consequently, thicker steel members may require less fire protection, as they can withstand higher temperatures without reaching critical failure points. Conversely, thinner steel sections heat up more quickly and may necessitate additional fireproofing measures to achieve the desired level of fire resistance.
b) Shape of Steel Structure and Fire Protection Performance
The shape of a steel structure can significantly influence the performance of fire protection systems. For instance, I-beams and H-beams provide larger surface areas for applying fireproofing materials, which can enhance their fire resistance. However, their geometry can also create areas that are harder to protect, such as the flanges and webs.
In contrast, tubular steel sections (like hollow steel columns) may have a smaller surface area exposed to fire, but their enclosed shape can trap heat, potentially leading to quicker failure. Additionally, irregularly shaped or complex structures may have difficulty distributing fire protection materials evenly, which can compromise their effectiveness.
c) Section Factor and Formula
The “section factor” is a measure that relates the exposed surface area of a steel member to its volume, influencing how quickly it heats up in a fire. It is defined as the ratio of the exposed surface area to the volume of the section, indicating how effectively the steel will lose its structural integrity under fire conditions.
The formula for calculating the section factor (often denoted as “h”) is:
h=As/V
As = Exposed surface area of the steel section (m²)
V = Volume of the steel section (m³)
A higher section factor implies that the steel member will heat up more rapidly in a fire, leading to a greater need for fire protection
Examiner:
a) Many candidates were only able to explain one example how thickness of steel affects fire
resistance.
b) This question was not well answered by candidates as they were unable to provide
examples how the shape of steel can affect the performance of fire protection systems.
c) Many candidates were able to produce the formula for the section factor.
Describe the stages and checks when applying intumescent coatings for fire protection of
structural steelwork. (5 marks)
KP:
Applying intumescent coatings for fire protection of structural steelwork involves several key stages and checks to ensure effectiveness and compliance with safety standards. Here’s a breakdown:
- Surface Preparation
Cleaning: Remove rust, mill scale, oil, and other contaminants from the steel surface. This can involve abrasive blasting or chemical cleaning.
Inspection: Check for surface defects or irregularities. Ensure the substrate is sound and properly prepared for coating application. - Priming
Application of Primer: Apply a suitable primer to enhance adhesion of the intumescent coating. The primer type should be compatible with both the steel substrate and the intumescent product.
Curing: Allow the primer to cure fully as per manufacturer specifications, ensuring a strong bond with the intumescent layer. - Application of Intumescent Coating
Mixing: Follow manufacturer guidelines to mix the intumescent coating properly, if required.
Application Technique: Use appropriate methods (brush, roller, or spray) to apply the intumescent coating. Ensure even coverage and the correct film thickness.
Multiple Coats: If multiple coats are needed, allow adequate drying time between applications as specified by the manufacturer. - Thickness Verification
Dry Film Thickness (DFT) Check: Use a thickness gauge to ensure that the applied intumescent coating meets the specified dry film thickness. This is critical for ensuring adequate fire protection.
Quality Control: Conduct checks at various points on the coated surface to confirm consistency. - Final Inspection and Documentation
Visual Inspection: Conduct a final visual inspection to check for any defects, such as missed spots or uneven areas.
Documentation: Record all application details, including environmental conditions (temperature and humidity), batch numbers, and DFT readings. This documentation is important for compliance and future reference.
By following these stages and checks, you can ensure the intumescent coatings provide effective fire protection for structural steelwork.
Examiner:
Most candidates struggled to answer this question. Many candidates failed to mention that
the steel must be prepared prior to applying intumescent coatings. A few candidates were
able to describe the wet film thickness and dry thickness surveys of coatings. Some good
answers included some of the following:
* Surface preparation – should be in line with preparation standard.
* Check surface profile minimum and maximum as specified.
* Ensure dust and other contamination is removed.
* Air temperature, substrate temperature, relative humidity and dew point should be as
manufacturer’s data sheet.
* Batch numbers of all products used.
* Dates and times of application and compliance with recommended over-coating times
from manufacturer’s data sheets.
* Wet film thickness checks.
* Dry film thickness survey and records at primer stage, after application of intumescent
basecoat and on completion of coating.
* Visual appearance as specified and in accordance with agreed standard.
a) Describe the role of fire- resistant boarding when protecting structural steel sections.
(1 mark)
b) Describe two factors to be taken into account when using board systems for the fire
protection of structural steel work. (2 marks)
KP:
a) Role of Fire-Resistant Boarding
Fire-resistant boarding serves as a protective barrier for structural steel sections, providing insulation against high temperatures during a fire. It helps to delay the heating of the steel, thereby maintaining its structural integrity for a longer duration. This is crucial for preventing premature failure of the steel, allowing for more time for evacuation and firefighting efforts.
b) Factors to Consider When Using Board Systems
Thickness and Density:
The thickness and density of the board material affect its fire resistance performance. Thicker boards typically provide better insulation and longer protection times. It’s essential to choose a board with adequate specifications that meet the required fire resistance ratings for the particular application.
Environmental Conditions:
Consideration of environmental factors such as humidity, temperature, and exposure to moisture is crucial. Boards must be suitable for the specific environment where they will be installed, as some materials may degrade or lose effectiveness when exposed to certain conditions, potentially compromising fire protection.
Examiner:
a) Most candidates were able to describe the role of fire resistance boardings protecting
steel sections.
b) Candidates struggled to answer this question with many not receiving any marks.
Answers should have included:
* Type of fixing and whether fixed by adhesive systems or mechanical means
* Joints and whether sealing is required.
* Board dimension required.
* Consider how the size and weight might affect working and compliance with H&S
regulations.
* Confirm that no alternations to design are required.
* Regulatory requirements.
* Choice of installer.
* Durability of boards in different environments.
* Resistance to damage.
Describe the limitations associated with the impregnation treatments used for timber and
wood-derived buildings materials. (5 marks)
KP:
Impregnation treatments for timber and wood-derived building materials involve applying chemical preservatives or fire retardants to enhance durability and fire resistance. However, these treatments come with several limitations:
- Limited Penetration Depth:
Impregnation treatments may not penetrate deeply into denser wood species or thick sections, leaving the inner core vulnerable to decay or fire. Effective protection relies heavily on the treatment reaching the necessary depth.
- Variability in Effectiveness:
The effectiveness of the treatment can vary based on wood species, moisture content, and the specific chemicals used. Some treatments may be more effective on certain types of wood, leading to inconsistent protection across different materials.
- Environmental Impact:
Many impregnating agents can be toxic to humans and the environment, raising concerns about health risks during application and potential leaching into the soil. Regulations may restrict the use of certain chemicals, complicating compliance.
- Maintenance Requirements:
Treated timber may require periodic maintenance and reapplication of the treatment to maintain its protective qualities, adding to lifecycle costs and efforts. Over time, exposure to weather and wear can diminish the treatment’s effectiveness.
- Cost Considerations:
The initial costs associated with high-quality impregnation treatments can be significant. Additionally, the need for specialized application techniques and equipment can increase overall project costs, making it less viable for budget-sensitive projects.
These limitations necessitate careful consideration when selecting and applying impregnation treatments for timber and wood-derived building materials.
Examiner:
Candidates appeared not to understand how impregnation treatments protected timber and
were, therefore, unable to provide answers to this question.
a) Describe three functions of fire resisting partitions. (3 marks)
b) Describe three types of boards that may be used in the construction of fire
resisting partitions. (3 marks)
AN
A)
Restric the spread of fire for a certain period of time from one side to the other
They are used to compartmentalise and subdivide a building
They are used to enclosed areas of special fire hazard
Protect escape routes
KP:
b) Types of Boards Used in Fire-Resisting Partitions
1)Gypsum Board:
Gypsum board, often known as drywall, is a common material used in fire-resisting partitions. It contains gypsum, which has natural fire-resistant properties. Fire-rated gypsum boards are specifically designed to withstand high temperatures and are available in various thicknesses.
2)Cement Board:
Cement board is made from a mixture of cement and reinforcing fibers. It is highly resistant to fire and moisture, making it suitable for high-humidity environments. Cement boards are often used in areas requiring enhanced fire protection and durability.
3)Mineral Wool Board:
Mineral wool boards are made from natural or recycled materials, providing excellent thermal insulation and fire resistance. They can withstand high temperatures and are often used in conjunction with other materials to enhance the fire-resisting properties of partitions.
Examiner:
a) This question was well answered, and most candidates scored full marks for this part.
b) Many candidates listed just 3 types of boards, without describing them as required by the
question. Candidates could have chosen from the following:
* Calcium Silicate Boards - Calcium silicate boards are manufactured from lime, cement,
silica and fire protective fillers in combination with cellulose fibre.
* Cellulose reinforced cement-based boards - Cement based boards are made from a
mixture of cement and binders or reinforcing materials such as engineered wood
filaments.
* Glass fibre reinforced cementitious boards - Cementitious boards are manufactured from
Portland cement, lightweight fillers and binders. The boards may also contain alkali
resistant glass fibre in the form of mesh or random strands.
* Glass reinforced gypsum boards - Boards manufactured from gypsum with glass wool
tissue facing membranes and glass core reinforcement may exhibit excellent fire
resistance.
* Gypsum fibre board - Gypsum fibreboards are manufactured from calcined gypsum and
cellulose fibres produced from recycled paper, mixed with water but without the use of
binders.
* Gypsum plasterboard - Gypsum plasterboard consists of a gypsum core encased in and
firmly bonded to strong paper liners. Gypsum itself is non-combustible and contributes to
the fire resistance of the structure in which it is to be used.
* Steel faced boards - Steel faced boards are manufactured from a non-combustible core,
which is usually cementitious based, onto which steel sheets are mechanically bonded.
State and explain the three main criteria that materials are assessed against when
undergoing fire resistance testing as part of BS476. (6 marks)
KP:
When materials undergo fire resistance testing as part of BS 476, they are assessed against three main criteria:
- Load-Bearing Capacity (Structural Integrity)
Explanation: This criterion assesses the material’s ability to support loads during a fire. It measures whether the structure can maintain its load-bearing capabilities under elevated temperatures for a specified duration. If a material loses its structural integrity and collapses before the designated fire resistance time is reached, it fails this criterion.
- Integrity (Flame and Smoke Penetration)
Explanation: The integrity criterion evaluates whether the material can prevent flames and hot gases from passing through the partition or structure. This is crucial for limiting the spread of fire and smoke to adjacent areas, which can be life-threatening. A failure in integrity is marked by any cracks, openings, or breaches that allow fire or smoke to travel through the material.
- Insulation (Temperature Rise)
Explanation: The insulation criterion measures the ability of a material to limit the temperature rise on the unexposed side during a fire. This is important to protect the occupants and contents of adjacent spaces from excessive heat. If the temperature on the non-fire side exceeds a specified threshold within a given time frame, the material fails this criterion. The goal is to ensure that the material provides a barrier not only to flames but also to heat transfer.
Each of these criteria is essential for assessing the overall fire resistance of a material, ensuring it can effectively protect life and property during a fire scenario.
Examiner:
A small number of candidates were able to provide very good answers to this question and
scored full marks. Other candidates were able to name the criteria - stability, integrity and
insulation, but were unable to explain each criterion and lost marks.
Describe how non-fire rated glass behaves in fire. (4 marks)
AN
Non fire rated glass will quickly fail below 100 degrees. Therefore when a fire breaks out non fire rated glass will quickly crack and fall out of its frame. This situation can be amplified if the thermal shock generated by water from a firefighters hose or activation of a sprinkler system we’re to impinge the hot surface of the glass. Furthermore, in situations where security glass is deemed a critical issue, toughened, also known as tampered glass, will be considered appropriate. However, in fire conditions such glazing is subject to catastrophic failure.
Won’t resist the passage of heat either. Clouds up and cracks preventing visibility
KP:
Non-fire rated glass exhibits specific behaviors in fire conditions, which can compromise safety. Here’s a description of its behavior:
- Temperature Vulnerability
Non-fire rated glass is susceptible to thermal stress. When exposed to high temperatures, it heats up quickly, causing it to lose structural integrity and become brittle. This can lead to cracking or shattering, which can create hazardous situations as broken glass can fall or collapse.
- Limited Fire Resistance
Unlike fire-rated glass, non-fire rated glass does not provide any fire resistance. It will not withstand flames or the heat from a fire, allowing it to break and potentially allowing fire and smoke to pass through, compromising compartmentalization in a building.
- Smoke and Fume Transmission
As non-fire rated glass fails, it can allow smoke and toxic fumes to penetrate into other areas of a building. This increases the risk of smoke inhalation for occupants and can hinder evacuation efforts.
- Loss of Visibility
When subjected to fire, non-fire rated glass can become obscured due to the heat and subsequent cracking. This loss of visibility can impede the ability of occupants to find exits or navigate through smoke-filled environments.
Overall, non-fire rated glass lacks the protective qualities needed to contain fire and smoke, making it unsuitable for applications where fire resistance is critical.
Examiner:
Most candidates were able to provide descriptions of how non-fire rated glass behaves in
fire.
Explain the difference between “integrity rated glazing” and “insulation rated glazing”. (4
marks)
KP:
The difference between integrity rated glazing and insulation rated glazing lies in their specific functions and performance criteria in fire situations:
- Integrity Rated Glazing
Definition: Integrity rated glazing is designed to prevent the passage of flames and hot gases from one side to the other during a fire.
Performance: It focuses primarily on maintaining a barrier to fire and smoke for a specified duration. If the glass breaks or allows flames to pass through, it fails the integrity test. Integrity rated glazing is often used in areas where the spread of fire needs to be contained, such as in fire doors or partitions.
- Insulation Rated Glazing
Definition: Insulation rated glazing is designed not only to prevent the passage of flames but also to limit the temperature rise on the unexposed side during a fire.
Performance: This type of glazing ensures that the heat transfer is minimized, protecting occupants and materials behind the glass from excessive heat. Insulation rated glazing is used in locations where temperature control is critical, such as in exterior windows or adjacent to escape routes.
Summary
In summary, integrity rated glazing focuses on preventing fire and smoke from passing through, while insulation rated glazing also limits heat transfer, providing additional thermal protection. Both types are crucial in enhancing fire safety but serve different roles in fire protection strategies.
Examiner:
Most candidates were able to explain the difference between integrity and insulation rated
glass but lost marks as they were unable to classify the glass e.g., E or EI.
Explain the purpose and use of cavity barriers and describe the two different types of cavity
barriers. (6 marks)
AN
Cavity barriers are used to close a concealed space in the event of a fire. they do not need to have the same level of performance as fire barriers. UK guidance currently requires that they provide a minimum 30minute integrity and 15minute insulation
KP:
Purpose of Cavity Barriers
Cavity barriers are crucial components in building fire safety, designed to prevent the spread of fire and smoke within concealed spaces, such as wall cavities or between floors. Their primary purposes include:
Fire Containment: Cavity barriers restrict the movement of smoke and flames, helping to compartmentalize a building and prevent fire from spreading through hidden voids.
Protection of Escape Routes: By limiting fire spread, cavity barriers help to ensure that escape routes remain accessible and safe for occupants during a fire emergency.
Compliance with Building Regulations: They assist in meeting fire safety regulations and standards, which require certain measures to be in place to protect buildings from fire hazards.
Types of Cavity Barriers
1) Rigid Cavity Barriers:
Description: These are typically made from non-combustible materials, such as mineral wool or fire-resistant boards. They are installed in vertical or horizontal positions within the cavity.
Use: Rigid cavity barriers are used in walls, ceilings, and floors to create a physical barrier against fire and smoke. They are effective in providing structural support while maintaining fire resistance.
2) Flexible Cavity Barriers:
Description: Flexible cavity barriers are made from materials like intumescent or fire-resistant fabrics that can expand when exposed to heat, filling gaps and preventing fire spread.
Use: They are often installed around service penetrations (such as pipes and ducts) or in areas where movement is expected. Flexible barriers adapt to changes in the building structure, providing a versatile solution for fire protection in complex or irregular spaces.
Summary
In summary, cavity barriers play a vital role in enhancing fire safety by containing smoke and flames within a building. Rigid and flexible cavity barriers serve different functions but work together to protect concealed spaces and ensure safe evacuation routes during a fire emergency.
Examiner: Candidates were able to explain the purpose and use of cavity barriers. A few candidates
failed to describe the two types of cavity barriers i.e., large and small cavity barriers.
Describe the factors to be taken into account when selecting and installing penetration seals.
(4 marks)
KP:
When selecting and installing penetration seals, several factors must be considered to ensure effective fire protection and compliance with safety standards:
- Type of Penetration
Consideration: Identify the type of services (e.g., electrical cables, pipes, ducts) that will penetrate the fire-rated barrier. Different materials may require specific sealing solutions to maintain the fire resistance of the wall or floor.
Impact: The characteristics of the penetration, such as size and number of services, will influence the choice of sealant or sealing system. - Fire Resistance Rating
Consideration: The penetration seal must match or exceed the fire resistance rating of the surrounding construction. Understanding the required fire rating helps in selecting appropriate materials and systems.
Impact: Using seals with insufficient fire resistance can compromise the integrity of the fire barrier, allowing smoke and flames to spread. - Material Compatibility
Consideration: Ensure that the sealant or sealing system is compatible with the materials of both the penetration and the surrounding construction. This includes evaluating factors like thermal expansion, chemical resistance, and adhesion properties.
Impact: Incompatible materials can lead to seal degradation over time, reducing effectiveness in a fire scenario. - Installation Procedures
Consideration: Follow manufacturer guidelines and industry best practices during installation. This includes ensuring proper application methods, curing times, and environmental conditions (temperature and humidity).
Impact: Proper installation is critical for the effectiveness of penetration seals. Poor installation can result in gaps or weaknesses that may fail during a fire.
By considering these factors, the effectiveness of penetration seals in maintaining fire resistance and ensuring safety can be maximized.
Examiner:
This question was poorly answered. Most candidates were able to describe the fire resistance
when selecting and installing penetration seal, but many failed to describe the other factors
such as providing suitable support/loadbearing seals; ensuring sealing will allow the
penetration to move/expand and ensure fully fire stopped with no gaps to enable fire spread.
State three methods to fire-stop and seal pipe penetrations through a fire resisting wall or
floor. (3 marks)
KP:
Here are three methods to fire-stop and seal pipe penetrations through a fire-resisting wall or floor:
- Intumescent Sealants
Description: Intumescent sealants expand when exposed to high temperatures, forming a char that seals the penetration and prevents the passage of flames and smoke.
Application: Applied around the pipe before installation or in gaps after the pipe is in place. They can accommodate movement and are suitable for various types of pipes.
- Fire-Resistant Collars
Description: Fire-resistant collars are mechanical devices that fit around pipes. They contain intumescent materials that activate during a fire.
Application: Installed around plastic pipes; when exposed to heat, the collar expands and compresses the pipe, sealing off the opening.
- Mortar or Cement-Based Systems
Description: Fire-rated mortars or cement-based products are used to fill the annular space around pipes.
Application: The mortar is applied around the pipe penetration in wall or floor assemblies to provide a solid barrier against fire, smoke, and heat. This method is often used for metal pipes.
Each method provides effective fire-stopping capabilities, helping to maintain the integrity of fire-resisting walls and floors.
Examiner:
Most candidates scored well on this question, with several getting full marks.
When air handling ducts pass through fire-separating elements, the load-bearing capacity,
integrity and insulation of the elements should be maintained. Describe the methods that can
be used to do this. (3 marks)
KP:
To maintain the load-bearing capacity, integrity, and insulation of fire-separating elements when air handling ducts pass through them, the following methods can be employed:
- Fire Dampers
Description: Fire dampers are installed within the ductwork at the point where it penetrates a fire-separating element. These devices automatically close upon detecting heat from a fire, preventing flames and smoke from spreading through the duct.
Function: By sealing the duct opening during a fire, fire dampers help maintain the integrity of the fire-separating element and prevent fire spread.
- Fire-Resistant Sleeves or Casings
Description: Fire-resistant sleeves or casings are used around ducts where they pass through fire-rated walls or floors. These sleeves are made from fire-resistant materials that provide thermal protection.
Function: They protect the duct and maintain the insulation of the surrounding fire-separating element, helping to prevent heat transfer and maintain the element’s performance during a fire.
- Sealing with Fire-Rated Materials
Description: The gaps around the duct penetrations can be sealed using fire-rated sealants or mortars. These materials are specifically designed to resist fire and prevent smoke and flames from passing through.
Function: By sealing these gaps, the integrity and insulation of the fire-separating element are preserved, preventing fire spread and maintaining overall fire safety.
These methods collectively ensure that the fire-resisting capabilities of walls and floors are upheld when ducts pass through them, enhancing overall building safety.
Examiner:
Candidates should have included thermally activated fire dampers, enclose in fire resisting
material, and protect using fire resisting ductwork
Explain the factors to be considered when selecting protection for ductwork used for kitchens.
(2 marks)
AN:
The REI must be maintained for fire resistingnductwork. This is because Airborne fats and grease from the kitchen will build up within the duct creating a flamable lining. Consequently Fire resisting ductwork should be specified.
Additionally regular access hatches should be provided to allow regular cleaning and maintenance to remove the build up
Intemesent dampners are not typically recommened serving kitchen ducts as the fats will build up on the matrix of intumensent fins and may block or restrict the flow of air.
KP:
When selecting protection for ductwork used in kitchens, consider the following factors:
- Fire Resistance Rating
Consideration: Kitchen ductwork often carries flammable materials and can be exposed to high temperatures. Therefore, selecting ductwork with an appropriate fire resistance rating is essential to prevent the spread of fire in the event of a kitchen fire.
Impact: This ensures that the ductwork can contain any potential fire and protect adjacent areas, complying with building regulations. - Grease Accumulation and Cleaning
Consideration: Kitchen ducts are prone to grease accumulation, which can pose a significant fire hazard. It’s important to choose duct materials and protection systems that are resistant to grease buildup and easy to clean.
Impact: Effective cleaning access and grease management reduce the risk of fire and ensure the longevity of the duct system, maintaining compliance with fire safety standards.
These factors help ensure the safety and efficiency of ductwork in kitchen environments.
Examiner:
Some candidates only scored one mark for this question. Many candidates failed to include in
their answers maintaining integrity, insulation and load bearing capacity
Identify and describe three different types of damper. (6 marks
KP:
Here are three different types of dampers used in building systems, each serving distinct purposes:
- Fire Dampers
Description: Fire dampers are designed to prevent the spread of fire and smoke through ductwork in fire-rated walls and floors. They automatically close when they detect heat from a fire, sealing off the duct.
Function: By closing off the duct, fire dampers help maintain the integrity of fire barriers and compartmentalize the building, protecting occupants and minimizing property damage during a fire.
- Smoke Dampers
Description: Smoke dampers are specifically designed to control the movement of smoke within a building’s ventilation system. They can be manually or automatically operated based on smoke detection systems.
Function: Smoke dampers help to limit smoke spread during a fire, directing it to designated smoke zones or exhaust points. This is crucial for maintaining safe evacuation routes and reducing smoke inhalation risks.
- Combination Fire and Smoke Dampers
Description: Combination dampers integrate the functions of both fire and smoke dampers into a single unit. They are designed to close in response to both heat (for fire) and smoke detection.
Function: These dampers provide comprehensive protection by preventing both fire and smoke from traveling through ductwork, ensuring that fire safety systems are effective in maintaining safe environments during emergencies.
Each type of damper plays a vital role in enhancing fire safety and air quality management in buildings.
Examiner:
Some candidates could not identify 3 types of dampers and other candidates kept referring
to fire dampers in their answers. A few candidates were only able to name one type of
damper. They could have chosen three of the following:
* Curtain fire dampers
* Intumescent fire dampers
* Multi-blade Fire Dampers
* Single Blade Fire Dampers
* Multi-section dampers
* Leakage classified fire dampers (S)
* Insulated Fire Dampers (I)
* Smoke Control Damper
Explain the advantages of using a doorset when compared to a door assembly. (4 marks
AN
Tested as a complete unit which helps ensure they are able to withstand the effects of a. Fire
All items are presepcified and know to be compatible
Reduced adjusting and fitting onsite better ensuring the door can withstand a fire as designed
BWF certification is only possible when doorsets are utilised
KP:
Using a doorset offers several advantages over a traditional door assembly:
- Ease of Installation
Advantage: Doorsets are pre-assembled units that include the door, frame, and hardware, allowing for quicker and more straightforward installation.
Impact: This reduces labor time and costs on-site, as the entire unit can be fitted in one step rather than assembling multiple components separately.
- Consistency and Quality Control
Advantage: Since doorsets are manufactured in a controlled environment, they typically maintain higher quality standards compared to individually sourced components.
Impact: This results in better fit and finish, reducing issues such as misalignment or gaps, which can occur with traditional door assemblies.
- Improved Performance
Advantage: Doorsets are designed as a complete unit, ensuring compatibility and performance of all components, such as thermal insulation, sound attenuation, and fire resistance.
Impact: This integrated approach often leads to enhanced performance characteristics compared to a door assembly, which may use mismatched components.
- Reduced Risk of Damage
Advantage: Doorsets often come with protective packaging and are designed for transport, minimizing the risk of damage during handling and installation.
Impact: This can lead to lower replacement or repair costs over time and a more aesthetically pleasing result upon completion.
Overall, doorsets provide a more efficient, reliable, and high-quality solution compared to traditional door assemblies.
Examiner:
A few candidates were able to describe the advantages of doorsets and scored good marks.
Some candidates stated that using doorsets saved time and, although that may be true, it
should not affect the reasoning behind the advantages
a) Describe four checks that would be carried out prior to installing the door frame for a
fire door. (4 marks)
b) Describe four checks that should be carried out in relation to the intumescent fire and
smoke seals used on a fire door. (4 marks)
KP:
a) Checks Prior to Installing the Door Frame for a Fire Door
Verification of Fire Rating:
Description: Ensure that the door frame is certified for the appropriate fire resistance rating as required by building regulations and fire safety standards.
Importance: This guarantees that the frame can support the fire door’s performance and maintain compartmentalization during a fire.
Structural Integrity:
Description: Inspect the wall or opening where the frame will be installed to confirm that it is structurally sound and free from defects, such as cracks or deterioration.
Importance: A stable and sound installation surface is crucial for the door frame to function correctly and maintain its fire-resisting properties.
Correct Size and Fit:
Description: Measure the door frame and the corresponding door to ensure they match in size and fit within the designated opening without excessive gaps.
Importance: Proper alignment is essential for the door to close securely and activate seals effectively, ensuring optimal fire protection.
Hardware Compatibility:
Description: Check that all necessary hardware (hinges, locks, etc.) is compatible with the fire door frame and meets fire safety standards.
Importance: Incompatible hardware may compromise the door’s functionality and fire-resistance capabilities, potentially leading to safety issues.
b) Checks for Intumescent Fire and Smoke Seals on a Fire Door
Correct Type and Rating:
Description: Verify that the intumescent seals used are suitable for the specific fire door and have the appropriate fire resistance rating.
Importance: Using the correct seals ensures compliance with fire safety standards and enhances the door’s effectiveness during a fire.
Proper Installation:
Description: Inspect the seals to ensure they are installed according to manufacturer instructions, including correct placement and adhesion.
Importance: Improperly installed seals may not function effectively, allowing smoke and flames to penetrate, compromising safety.
Condition of Seals:
Description: Check for any signs of damage, wear, or degradation on the intumescent seals, including cracks, peeling, or missing sections.
Importance: Damaged seals can fail to expand properly in a fire, reducing their effectiveness in preventing fire and smoke spread.
Compatibility with Door Movement:
Description: Ensure that the seals do not obstruct the normal operation of the door, allowing it to open and close freely without interference.
Importance: Proper functionality of the door is essential for both everyday use and during an emergency, ensuring safe evacuation routes.
These checks are critical for ensuring that both the door frame and the seals work together effectively to provide the required fire protection.
Examiner:
a) Candidates struggled to answer this question - some were only able to answer that
checks included suitable fire rating and free from damage. Better answers also included:
* Compatible with the door assembly/doorset
* BWF-Certificate label/s on frame (if applicable) undamaged
* Relevant instructions for fitting available
* Competent/Trained staff to carry out the fitting.
* Suitable for the construction installation
b) Most candidates were unable to answer this question. They were only able to answer
that checks for intumescent fire and smoke seals include suitable fire rating, free from
damage and were compatible. Better answers would have also included:
* Compatible with the door assembly or doorset
* Seals are full length indoor edge or frame.
* Seals are flush in grooves.
* All free from damage
In relation to the fire tetrahedron, explain how water and dry chemical powders work to
extinguish fire. (4 marks)
KP:
The fire tetrahedron consists of four elements necessary for combustion: heat, fuel, oxygen, and a chemical reaction. Both water and dry chemical powders work to extinguish fires by targeting these components.
- Water
Cooling Effect: Water works primarily by cooling the fire. When applied, it absorbs heat from the flames and the surrounding materials, lowering the temperature below the ignition point, thus disrupting the heat component of the tetrahedron.
Smothering Effect: Water also creates steam when it boils, which can displace oxygen around the fire. This reduction in available oxygen further inhibits combustion, aiding in extinguishment.
- Dry Chemical Powders
Chemical Reaction
Interruption: Dry chemical powders, such as monoammonium phosphate, work by interrupting the chemical reactions in the fire. They create a barrier between the fuel and the oxygen, effectively breaking the combustion chain reaction.
Oxygen Displacement: Many dry chemical agents also release gases that can displace oxygen, further starving the fire of the oxygen needed to sustain combustion. This action directly targets the oxygen component of the tetrahedron.
In summary, water extinguishes fire primarily by cooling and smothering, while dry chemical powders disrupt the chemical reactions and reduce oxygen availability, effectively extinguishing the fire.
Examiner:
Many candidates provided the definition of the Fire Tetrahedron which was not asked for. It
was disappointing that many candidates did not have the underpinning knowledge how
water and dry chemical powders extinguish a fire.
Describe the process of smouldering combustion. (4 marks)
KP:
Smouldering combustion is a slow, flameless form of combustion that occurs in solid fuels. Here’s an overview of the process:
- Initiation
Description: Smouldering begins when a solid fuel, such as wood or coal, is heated to a point where it starts to oxidize without producing flames. This can occur due to an external heat source or the heat generated by the material itself as it decomposes.
- Heat Generation and Surface Reactions
Description: As the material smoulders, chemical reactions take place at the surface of the fuel. These reactions produce heat, which can lead to further decomposition of the fuel. This heat causes volatile gases to be released from the solid material.
Importance: The heat generated sustains the smouldering process and can eventually ignite nearby materials if they reach their ignition temperature.
- Oxygen Consumption
Description: Smouldering requires a limited amount of oxygen, usually from the surrounding air. The oxidation reactions consume oxygen and produce heat, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other byproducts.
Impact: If the oxygen supply is sufficient, smouldering can continue for an extended period, sometimes smouldering for hours or even days, depending on the fuel and conditions.
- Potential for Transition to Flaming Combustion
Description: If the smouldering continues to generate enough heat and volatiles, it can transition to flaming combustion if additional oxygen becomes available or if the temperature increases sufficiently.
Risk: This transition can lead to rapid fire spread, making smouldering a significant concern in fire safety, particularly in materials like bedding, upholstered furniture, or piles of organic materials.
In summary, smouldering combustion is a slow, low-temperature process that relies on limited oxygen and can pose risks due to its potential to ignite surrounding materials if not properly managed.
Examiner:
Many candidates did not understand the process of smouldering combustion. Some
candidates described how to smother a fire. A limited number of candidates stated that a
smouldering combustion had no visible flame.
In relation to means of escape, explain what is meant by the following terms:
a) “evacuation time” (2 marks)
b) “travel distance” (2 marks)
KP:
a) Evacuation Time
Definition: Evacuation time refers to the total time required for all occupants of a building to safely exit in the event of an emergency. This includes the time taken for individuals to recognize the need to evacuate, navigate through the building, and reach a safe exit.
Importance: Understanding evacuation time is crucial for designing buildings with effective means of escape, as it helps to ensure that occupants can evacuate safely before conditions (such as smoke or fire) become life-threatening.
b) Travel Distance
Definition: Travel distance is the maximum distance an occupant must travel to reach a designated exit or a safe area from their location within a building. It is typically measured along the path of egress and can vary based on the building layout and occupancy type.
Importance: Travel distance is a critical factor in fire safety design. Regulations often specify maximum travel distances to ensure that occupants can quickly and safely reach an exit, reducing the risk of injury or fatalities during emergencies.
Examiner:
a) Most candidates were able to describe Evacuation Time.
b) Some candidates struggled to answer this question in full. Many candidates failed to
state that the travel distance included the layout of walls, partitions and fittings.
Explain how the use of fire retardants contributes to passive fire protection in a building. (4
marks)
AN:
- Fire retardands reduce the combustibility of materials reducing the oxygen available to a fire, slowing the rate of growth of a fire and therefore increasing evacuation times and providing more time to control a fire while it is small.
- Fire retardands result in a fire that burns less intensely, limiting spread of fire and increasing escape time.
- Fire retardands are typically used on combustible materials such as timber including hardwoods, softwood, chipboards and MDF. They are also used on furniture fabrics, matresses and curtains and on firefighters clothing protecting fire fighters in the intense heat. Flame retardant treatments will also be found in electrical wiring and wall Insulation materials such as polystyrene and polyurethane insulation foam
- However, it is essential to appreciate that the level of fire performance achieved is directly related to the combined performance of the coating and the surface to which it is coated on or penetrated within.
- The surface of a construction product can be treated with a ‘fire retardant’ system to minimise any damage from a small fire that’s trying to grow and become bigger. The intent is to stop a fire growing or spreading to unmanageable proportions.
- There are a number of ways in which the combustion process can be retarded by physical action, these include: *
a. By cooling. Some chemical reactions are endothermic i.e. they actually cool the material down. *
b. By forming a protective layer that prevents the underlying material from igniting. Revision 2 2020 *
c. By dilution. Some retardants release water and/or carbon dioxide while burning. This may dilute the ‘radicals’ in the flame enough for it to go out - Surface coating systems Generally surface coatings consist of two types; * Intumescent coatings that react to the heat of the fire by swelling up to form a char which in turn forms a thermally insulating layer blocking both heat and oxygen thereby controlling the level of combustion generated from the surface of the timber or wood-based substrate. * Ablative coatings which are designed to generate gases or vapours that will interfere with the chemistry of the flaming reactions
KP:
The use of fire retardants contributes to passive fire protection in a building in several ways:
- Delay in Ignition
Explanation: Fire retardants are chemicals applied to materials to reduce their flammability. When treated, materials take longer to ignite when exposed to flames or heat, effectively delaying the onset of fire.
Impact: This delay provides occupants more time to evacuate and helps prevent the rapid spread of fire, which is crucial for safety.
- Reduction of Heat Release Rate
Explanation: Fire retardants can modify the combustion process, reducing the rate at which heat is released from burning materials. This leads to lower temperatures and less intense flames.
Impact: By controlling the heat release, fire retardants help limit the potential for fire to spread to adjacent areas, protecting the overall structure.
- Formation of Protective Char Layer
Explanation: Many fire retardants promote the formation of a char layer on the surface of combustible materials during combustion. This layer acts as a barrier that insulates the underlying material from further heat exposure.
Impact: The char layer helps maintain the structural integrity of the material for a longer duration, preventing structural collapse and allowing more time for evacuation.
- Compliance with Fire Safety Standards
Explanation: The application of fire retardants often helps buildings meet fire safety regulations and standards, ensuring that materials are treated to achieve required fire performance ratings.
Impact: Compliance with these standards enhances the overall safety of the building, providing reassurance to occupants and meeting legal requirements.
In summary, fire retardants play a vital role in passive fire protection by delaying ignition, reducing heat release, forming protective barriers, and ensuring compliance with fire safety regulations, all of which contribute to enhanced safety in buildings.
Examiner:
is question was often answered poorly with some candidates unable to explain that flameretardant coatings will slow down the rate of growth of fire and that this provides time to tackle
a small fire/escape. Good responses set out where fire retardants can be used and how this
can reduce intensity and spread of fire.
Describe steps that building managers can take to ensure that fire protection provisions in
their premises are maintained. (4 marks)
KP:
Building managers can take several proactive steps to ensure that fire protection provisions in their premises are effectively maintained:
- Regular Inspections and Maintenance
Description: Conduct routine inspections of all fire protection systems, including fire alarms, sprinklers, extinguishers, and emergency lighting. Schedule maintenance as per manufacturer recommendations and regulatory requirements.
Impact: Regular inspections help identify any issues or malfunctions early, ensuring that fire protection systems are always in working order.
- Fire Safety Training and Drills
Description: Provide regular fire safety training for staff and occupants, including how to use fire extinguishers, recognize fire hazards, and execute evacuation procedures. Conduct fire drills to practice these procedures.
Impact: Training ensures that everyone knows how to respond in an emergency, enhancing overall safety and preparedness.
- Updating Fire Safety Plans
Description: Maintain and regularly update fire safety plans, including evacuation routes, assembly points, and emergency contact information. Ensure that all occupants are aware of these plans.
Impact: An updated fire safety plan provides clear guidance during emergencies, facilitating efficient evacuations and minimizing confusion.
- Record Keeping and Compliance Checks
Description: Keep detailed records of inspections, maintenance, training sessions, and any fire incidents. Ensure compliance with local fire safety regulations and standards.
Impact: Thorough documentation helps track the effectiveness of fire protection measures and provides a reference for audits or inspections by regulatory bodies.
By implementing these steps, building managers can effectively maintain fire protection provisions, ensuring a safer environment for occupants and compliance with fire safety regulations.
Examiner:
The majority of candidates struggled to answer this question. Answers included Fire Risk
Assessments, the Fire Strategy, testing the fire alarm systems and training employees.
In relation to fire resistance, explain the term “insulation” and explain why this is important. (4
marks)
KP:
Definition of “Insulation” in Fire Resistance
In the context of fire resistance, insulation refers to the ability of a material or construction element to limit the temperature rise on its non-exposed side during a fire. Insulation is measured by how effectively a material can withstand heat transfer, preventing the temperature from exceeding a specified limit for a defined period.
Importance of Insulation
Protection of Occupants and Property:
Explanation: Effective insulation helps protect occupants and valuable assets located on the unexposed side of a fire-resisting barrier from excessive heat. This is critical for preventing heat-related injuries and damage.
Impact: By maintaining lower temperatures on the safe side of a barrier, insulation contributes to the safety and survivability of individuals and the integrity of property during a fire.
Extended Safe Evacuation Time:
Explanation: By limiting heat transfer, insulated fire-resisting elements provide more time for occupants to evacuate safely before conditions become life-threatening.
Impact: This extended time is crucial for facilitating safe evacuations, especially in larger buildings where the response time can significantly affect survival.
Preventing Structural Failure:
Explanation: Insulation helps maintain the structural integrity of building components during a fire by keeping the temperatures of critical structural elements (like beams and columns) below their failure thresholds.
Impact: By preventing premature structural collapse, effective insulation contributes to the overall stability of the building, allowing for safe evacuation and reducing the risk of secondary fires from falling debris.
Compliance with Building Regulations:
Explanation: Many building codes and fire safety regulations require specific insulation performance criteria to be met to ensure a minimum level of safety in case of fire.
Impact: Meeting these standards helps ensure that buildings are designed and constructed to minimize fire risks, providing confidence to occupants and regulatory bodies regarding safety measures.
In summary, insulation in fire resistance is essential for protecting lives and property, facilitating safe evacuations, maintaining structural integrity, and ensuring compliance with safety regulations.
Examiner:
This question was usually answered well.
Describe the content of a fire test report and explain the possible limitations of such a report.
(6 marks)
KP:
Content of a Fire Test Report
A fire test report typically includes the following key components:
1) Test Identification:
Details: Includes information such as the test method used (e.g., ASTM, ISO), the test number, and the date of the test.
Purpose: Establishes the context of the report and provides a reference for the specific test conducted.
2) Sample Description:
Details: Describes the materials or products tested, including their specifications, dimensions, and any relevant construction details.
Purpose: Provides insight into what was tested and under what conditions, which is crucial for understanding the results.
3) Testing Conditions:
Details: Outlines the environmental conditions during the test, including temperature, humidity, and any relevant modifications made to standard procedures.
Purpose: Ensures transparency about the conditions under which the test was conducted, which can affect outcomes.
4) Results:
Details: Summarizes the findings of the test, including critical measurements such as temperature rise, time to failure, and any observations made during the test (e.g., smoke production, flame spread).
Purpose: Provides quantitative data that can be compared against fire safety standards to evaluate performance.
5) Conclusions and Recommendations:
Details: Offers a summary of the performance of the tested material or assembly, often indicating whether it meets the relevant fire resistance rating.
Purpose: Helps stakeholders understand the implications of the results for safety and compliance.
6) Limitations and Disclaimers:
Details: May include notes on the scope of the testing, any assumptions made, and limitations of the test method.
Purpose: Ensures that readers are aware of any factors that could influence the applicability of the results.
Possible Limitations of a Fire Test Report
1) Specific Conditions:
Limitation: Test results are often specific to the conditions under which the test was conducted, including sample size, arrangement, and environmental factors.
Impact: This may not reflect real-world scenarios, where conditions can vary significantly, leading to different performance outcomes.
2) Limited Scope:
Limitation: A report may only address specific aspects of fire performance (e.g., fire resistance) without covering other critical factors like smoke production, toxicity, or structural integrity.
Impact: Users may not have a comprehensive understanding of the product’s overall fire safety performance.
3) Material Variability:
Limitation: The materials tested may not represent all potential variations (e.g., manufacturing differences, environmental aging).
Impact: Variations can affect performance in actual applications, making the test results less reliable for broader use.
4) Compliance with Standards:
Limitation: A test may adhere to specific standards that may not be universally recognized or applicable to all jurisdictions.
Impact: This can lead to confusion regarding compliance and acceptance of the results across different regions or industries.
5) Temporal Relevance:
Limitation: Fire test reports can become outdated as new materials and technologies emerge or as standards evolve.
Impact: Older reports may not reflect the latest safety practices or scientific understanding, potentially leading to unsafe reliance on outdated information.
6) Interpretation Variability:
Limitation: Different stakeholders may interpret the results differently based on their interests or expertise, leading to varied conclusions about the same data.
Impact: This can create inconsistencies in application and understanding of fire safety measures.
In summary, while fire test reports are essential for evaluating fire performance, understanding their content and recognizing their limitations is crucial for proper application in real-world settings.
Examiner:
This question was well answered by candidates, with some candidates scoring full marks.
There were a few candidates who tried to guess the answers. A few candidates’ answers
included the date, time of the test. Many candidates failed to state the “Test Results” in their
answer.
a) Explain the purpose and operation of “active fire protection” systems. (4 marks)
b) Explain state how passive fire protection differs from active fire protection. (2 marks)
KP:
a) Purpose and Operation of Active Fire Protection Systems
Purpose: Active fire protection systems are designed to detect and suppress fires actively, minimizing damage, protecting occupants, and aiding in safe evacuation. Their primary goal is to respond quickly to a fire event to control or extinguish it before it spreads.
Operation:
1) Detection: Active fire protection systems incorporate sensors and alarms (e.g., smoke detectors, heat detectors) that continuously monitor the environment for signs of fire or smoke. When a fire is detected, these systems trigger alarms to alert occupants and emergency services.
2) Suppression: Once a fire is detected, active systems engage suppression methods, such as:
- Sprinkler Systems: Automatically release water to extinguish or control flames.
- Fire Extinguishers: Allow trained individuals to apply extinguishing agents directly to the fire.
- Foam Systems: Used in specific applications (like aircraft hangars) to smother flames and cool the burning material.
3) Emergency Response: Active systems often integrate with building management systems to facilitate emergency protocols, such as unlocking exits, activating emergency lighting, or guiding occupants to safety.
b) Difference Between Passive and Active Fire Protection
1) Passive Fire Protection:
Definition: Passive fire protection involves building components and materials designed to contain, slow, or prevent the spread of fire without any active intervention. This includes fire-resisting walls, doors, floors, and firestopping materials.
Function: It relies on the physical properties of materials to provide safety, maintaining structural integrity and compartmentalizing areas to prevent fire spread.
2) Active Fire Protection:
Definition: As previously explained, active fire protection systems actively detect and suppress fires using mechanical systems, alarms, and extinguishing agents.
Function: It requires a response mechanism that activates during a fire event, aiming to control or extinguish the fire.
In summary, passive fire protection focuses on containment and prevention through structural elements, while active fire protection provides detection and suppression through mechanical systems and interventions.
Examiner:
a) Many candidates appeared not to have the underpinning knowledge to answer this
question. A few candidates were able to score 2 marks.
b) The candidates struggle to answer this question with many only scoring 1 mark for
stating that Passive Fire protection was “in built”.
Explain how signage can be used to improve fire safety in a building. (4 marks)
KP:
Signage plays a crucial role in improving fire safety in a building by providing essential information and guidance.
Here are four key ways signage enhances fire safety:
- Clear Evacuation Routes
Description: Signage indicates the location of emergency exits, stairwells, and evacuation routes. This helps occupants quickly identify safe paths to leave the building during a fire.
Impact: Clear and visible evacuation signs facilitate efficient evacuations, reducing confusion and ensuring that occupants can escape swiftly in an emergency. - Fire Equipment Identification
Description: Signs can be used to mark the locations of fire extinguishers, fire alarms, and other firefighting equipment. They often include instructions on how to use the equipment.
Impact: By clearly identifying fire safety equipment, signage ensures that occupants know where to find and how to use these tools effectively, enhancing the chances of successfully managing small fires before they escalate. - Emergency Procedures
Description: Signage can outline emergency procedures, such as “In Case of Fire: Sound the Alarm and Evacuate” or provide instructions for specific actions during a fire event.
Impact: Providing concise emergency instructions helps occupants respond appropriately during a fire, reducing panic and improving overall safety. - Hazard Warnings
Description: Signs can warn occupants about specific fire hazards, such as flammable materials or restricted areas where smoking is prohibited.
Impact: By highlighting potential dangers, hazard warning signs promote awareness and encourage safe behaviors, helping to prevent fire incidents before they occur.
In summary, effective signage enhances fire safety by guiding evacuations, identifying equipment, communicating emergency procedures, and warning about hazards, ultimately contributing to a safer environment for all building occupants.
Examiner:
Candidates should have scored well in this question, but many struggled to answer the
question. Many candidates were solely focused on signage of fire doors, fire escape
signage. They did not include Prohibition signs or warning signs.
Describe each of the following methods of providing protection to structural timber:
a) Sacrificial timber (3 marks)
b) Insulating boards (3 marks)
KP:
a) Sacrificial Timber
Description: Sacrificial timber involves using additional layers of timber as a protective measure for structural timber elements. In the event of a fire, these extra layers are designed to burn away first, thereby protecting the underlying structural components.
How It Works:
1) Heat Absorption: The outer layers of sacrificial timber absorb heat and undergo pyrolysis, which is the thermal decomposition of the material.
2) Char Formation: As the outer layer burns, it forms a char layer that insulates and protects the remaining timber from direct exposure to flames and heat.
3) Extended Protection: The sacrificial layers provide additional time for the structural timber to maintain its integrity during a fire, delaying failure and allowing for safer evacuation.
Impact: This method is effective in prolonging the fire resistance of structural timber elements, thereby enhancing safety and compliance with building regulations.
b) Insulating Boards
Description: Insulating boards are non-combustible or fire-resistant materials applied to structural timber elements to provide thermal insulation and enhance fire resistance.
How It Works:
1) Thermal Barrier: Insulating boards create a barrier that reduces the heat transfer to the timber, keeping its temperature lower during a fire.
2) Fire Resistance: These boards are designed to withstand high temperatures for extended periods, thereby protecting the underlying timber from ignition and damage.
3) Comprehensive Coverage: Insulating boards can cover various timber elements, including beams, columns, and walls, offering a consistent level of fire protection throughout the structure.
Impact: Using insulating boards helps maintain the structural integrity of timber elements during a fire, improving safety, extending evacuation time, and ensuring compliance with fire safety standards.
Both methods provide effective means of enhancing fire resistance in structural timber, contributing to overall building safety.
Examiners
a) Many candidates were able to score 2 marks for this question.
b) Many candidates struggled to answer this question and did not include gypsum
plasterboard or calcium silicate in their answer.
a) Explain how the thickness of a steel structure affects its fire resistance and the amount of
structural fire protection required. (2 marks)
b) Explain, using examples, how the shape of a steel structure can affect the performance
of fire protection systems. (4 marks)
KP:
a) Thickness of Steel Structure and Fire Resistance
Impact on Fire Resistance: The thickness of a steel structure significantly influences its fire resistance. Thicker steel sections can absorb and dissipate heat more effectively than thinner ones, leading to slower temperature increases. This greater thermal mass allows thicker steel to withstand higher temperatures for longer periods before reaching critical failure points.
Impact on Fire Protection Requirements: As the thickness increases, the amount of structural fire protection needed may decrease because the inherent fire resistance of the material is enhanced. Consequently, thinner steel may require additional fire protection measures, such as coatings or cladding, to meet fire resistance ratings. In contrast, thicker sections might require less or no additional protection depending on the fire safety requirements.
b) Shape of Steel Structure and Performance of Fire Protection Systems
- Surface Area and Heat Exposure:
Example: A wide flange beam has a larger surface area compared to a standard I-beam. This increased surface area can lead to a higher rate of heat absorption during a fire, potentially requiring more fire protection, such as thicker intumescent coatings, to achieve the same level of fire resistance.
Impact: Shapes with greater surface areas may necessitate more robust fire protection systems to manage the increased heat exposure effectively.
- Complexity of Geometry:
Example: A complex architectural design, such as a curved or irregularly shaped steel structure, may complicate the application of fire protection materials. For instance, it can be challenging to apply fire-resistant coatings uniformly on curved surfaces.
Impact: This can lead to areas of insufficient coverage, compromising the effectiveness of the fire protection and increasing the risk of failure during a fire event.
- Structural Configuration:
Example: A steel truss may perform differently than a solid steel frame. In a truss, heat can circulate more freely, potentially affecting the integrity of the connections and joints more quickly than in a solid structure.
Impact: Fire protection systems must account for these differences in airflow and heat distribution, potentially requiring more detailed fire safety strategies for truss systems.
- Thermal Conductivity and Shape:
Example: A hollow steel section (like a tube) has different thermal properties compared to a solid section. The hollow design may trap heat, causing the internal surfaces to heat up quickly.
Impact: Fire protection strategies may need to adapt to ensure adequate insulation and cooling of these shapes, possibly necessitating specialized insulation materials to mitigate heat buildup.
In summary, both the thickness and shape of steel structures play critical roles in determining their fire resistance and the efficacy of fire protection systems, necessitating tailored approaches to ensure optimal fire safety.
Examiner:
a) Candidates scored well in this question with many scoring full marks.
b) Many candidates struggled to answer this question. Some candidates were able to describe
how Cellular beams and I & H sections reacted differently in fire conditions.
Sate the three main types of intumescent coatings used on steel structural designs and give
an example of a situation where each would be used. (6 marks)
KP:
Here are the three main types of intumescent coatings used on steel structural designs, along with examples of situations where each would be applied:
- Thin Film Intumescent Coatings
Description: These coatings are typically water-based and are designed to provide fire protection while maintaining a relatively low profile. They expand when exposed to heat, forming a thick insulating char layer.
Example of Use: Thin film intumescent coatings are often used in commercial buildings with exposed steel beams and columns, such as offices and shopping centers, where aesthetics are important. They can be painted over in various colors to match interior designs.
- Thick Film Intumescent Coatings
Description: Thick film coatings are applied in a greater thickness than thin film coatings, offering more substantial fire resistance. They also expand when heated, creating a protective layer.
Example of Use: Thick film intumescent coatings are suitable for industrial applications, such as warehouses and manufacturing facilities, where steel structures are subjected to higher fire risk. These coatings are typically used on structural elements that need a longer fire resistance rating. - Cementitious Intumescent Coatings
Description: These coatings consist of a mixture of cement-based materials and are used to provide fire protection to steel structures. They are generally thicker and heavier than other types.
Example of Use: Cementitious intumescent coatings are often applied in high-rise buildings or large industrial complexes, where structural steel elements need robust fire protection due to the building’s height and the potential for significant fire loads.
In summary, thin film, thick film, and cementitious intumescent coatings serve different purposes and are selected based on the specific fire protection needs and aesthetic considerations of the building project.
Examiner
A few candidates were able to score full marks in this question. Many candidates were able
to state where each intumescent coating could be found but could not state the type i.e.
Solvent borne, Water borne or Epoxy.
Describe the inspection processes to be applied during the installation of board systems. (6
marks)
AN
Ensure the board system provides the correct level of fire resistance
Ensure the system is installed as per the manufacturer guidance/ tested detail
Ensure correct number of mechanical fixings have been used and positioned correctly
Ensure correct fixings have been used as these will vary from manufacturer to manufactureer
Ensure correct thickness
Ensure the steel is fully enclosed
Inspect the type of material used whether it be stone wool, vermiculite or calcium silicate
KP:
The inspection process during the installation of board systems for fire protection involves several key steps to ensure compliance with safety standards and effective performance. Here’s an overview of the typical inspection processes:
- Pre-Installation Inspection
Objective: Before installation begins, inspect the materials to ensure they meet the required specifications and standards.
Checklist: Verify the type and thickness of boards, check for any damage, and ensure that all components (such as fixings and adhesives) are appropriate for the intended application. - Site Conditions Assessment
Objective: Assess the site to ensure it is ready for installation.
Checklist: Confirm that surfaces are clean, dry, and free from contaminants. Check that the environment (temperature and humidity) is suitable for installation according to manufacturer guidelines.
- Installation Method Verification
Objective: Ensure that the installation methods align with manufacturer instructions and fire safety regulations.
Checklist: Monitor the application techniques, such as proper cutting, fitting, and fastening of the boards. Verify that the boards are installed with the correct orientation and spacing as specified.
- Fire Seal Integrity Check
Objective: Inspect the integrity of any fire seals or joints between boards.
Checklist: Ensure that fire-resistant sealants or intumescent materials are correctly applied in joints and around penetrations. Confirm that there are no gaps or voids that could compromise fire performance.
- Post-Installation Inspection
Objective: Conduct a thorough inspection after installation to verify overall compliance.
Checklist: Review the installed board systems for any signs of damage or misalignment. Ensure that all fixings are secure and that the boards are adequately protected against environmental factors.
- Documentation and Reporting
Objective: Maintain records of the inspection processes for future reference and compliance verification.
Checklist: Document findings, including any issues identified and corrective actions taken. Provide a final report that details compliance with installation standards and fire safety requirements.
In summary, these inspection processes are crucial for ensuring that board systems are installed correctly, maintaining their fire protection capabilities, and adhering to regulatory standards.
Examiner:
Many candidates struggled to answer this question with many scoring 2-3 marks.
Describe how composite floors are constructed and explain how this effects how they
behave in fire. (4 marks)
KP:
### Construction of Composite Floors
Composite floors typically consist of a combination of concrete and steel elements, integrating the strengths of both materials. The construction process generally involves the following steps:
- Steel Beams and Decking: Steel beams are installed to support the floor system. Metal decking (often corrugated) is placed on top of these beams. The decking serves as a formwork for the concrete and helps distribute loads.
- Concrete Pouring: Concrete is poured over the metal decking, which bonds with the decking to create a composite action. The concrete slab is usually reinforced with steel rebar to enhance tensile strength.
- Curing: The concrete is allowed to cure, achieving strength over time. The composite action between the concrete and steel enhances the overall structural performance of the floor.
Behavior in Fire
The construction of composite floors affects their behavior in fire in several ways:
-
Heat Distribution:
- Impact: The combination of concrete and steel allows for better distribution of heat. Concrete has a high thermal mass, which helps absorb and dissipate heat, potentially delaying the temperature rise in the steel beams. This can prolong the time before the structural integrity is compromised.
-
Steel Vulnerability:
- Impact: While the concrete provides some insulation, the steel components can still become vulnerable at high temperatures (above approximately 500°C). As steel loses strength when heated, the effectiveness of the composite floor can diminish, especially if the fire exposure is intense and prolonged.
-
Composite Action:
- Impact: The composite action means that the floor system works together, enhancing load-bearing capacity. However, if one material fails (e.g., the steel beams lose strength), the overall performance of the floor may be significantly affected, leading to potential collapse.
-
Fire Resistance Ratings:
- Impact: The thickness of the concrete slab and the type of fire protection applied can influence the fire resistance rating of composite floors. Adequate fireproofing measures (like intumescent coatings or concrete thickness) are necessary to meet safety regulations and ensure structural integrity during a fire.
In summary, the construction of composite floors using a combination of concrete and steel provides benefits in heat distribution and load-bearing capacity, but careful consideration of fire resistance and protection measures is essential to ensure safety during a fire event.
Examiner:
Some candidates were unsure what a composite floor was. Some candidates gained marks
for stating a metal deck with concreted poured over it, the metal decking will expand due to
heat.
Explain why active fire curtains may be used to provide compartmentation and give two
examples of locations where they may be used. (4 marks)
KP:
### Why Active Fire Curtains Are Used for Compartmentation
Active fire curtains are used to provide compartmentation in buildings to enhance fire safety by creating barriers that can contain smoke and heat, allowing for safer evacuation and protecting property. Here are the key reasons for their use:
-
Dynamic Response:
- Active fire curtains can be deployed automatically or manually in response to fire detection systems. This allows for rapid containment of smoke and fire spread, which is crucial in maintaining safe escape routes and protecting unaffected areas of a building.
-
Space Efficiency:
- Unlike traditional fire walls or doors, fire curtains can be retracted when not in use, allowing for greater flexibility in space usage. This is particularly beneficial in open-plan areas where permanent barriers would hinder the layout.
Examples of Locations for Use
-
Open Atriums or Lobbies:
- In large commercial buildings with atriums or open lobbies, active fire curtains can be deployed to contain smoke and heat in the event of a fire. This prevents the spread of fire to upper floors and maintains safe egress routes for occupants.
-
Between Different Occupancy Areas:
- Active fire curtains can be installed between areas with different fire risks or occupancies, such as between a kitchen and dining area in a restaurant. This helps to contain potential fires from cooking operations, preventing them from spreading to other parts of the building.
In summary, active fire curtains are an effective solution for compartmentation, offering dynamic fire safety features and flexibility in design, making them suitable for various high-risk locations.
Examiner:
Most candidates were not able to answer the first part of the question why active fire curtains
may be used to provide compartmentation, with the majority not scoring any marks. The
second part of the question most candidates scored 2 marks. There were a few candidates
who did not know where fire curtains could be located.
a) Explain the purpose of compartmentation. (2 marks)
b) Describe four factors to be taken into account when determining and installing fire
protection for compartment walls. (4 marks)
Explain the purpose of compartmentation and give two examples of places within a building where this would be found. (4 marks)
Compartment walls and floors are specifically intended to ensure that fire is contained in the compartment of origin and is not allowed to spread horizontally or vertically through a building. Compartmentation is therefore the first line of defence in any fire strategy.
Typical compartments
Escape corridors
Stairwells
Protected lobbies/fire fighting shafts
Examiner:
a) Many candidates answered this part well, with may scoring full marks.
b) Some candidates struggled to answer this question and did not have the underpinning
knowledge to score well with many only achieving 2-3 marks.
a) Describe how non-fire rated glass behaves in fire. (2 marks)
b) Explain what is meant by “integrity only glazing” and give two examples of this type of
glass. (3 marks)
KP:
### a) Behavior of Non-Fire Rated Glass in Fire
Non-fire rated glass generally lacks the thermal resistance required to withstand high temperatures during a fire. When exposed to flames and heat, this type of glass will:
- Shatter: Non-fire rated glass typically breaks when subjected to extreme temperatures. This shattering can lead to the rapid spread of smoke and flames between compartments, compromising the integrity of fire barriers.
- Fail to Insulate: Unlike fire-rated glass, non-fire rated glass does not provide any insulation against heat transfer. This means that heat can easily pass through, potentially allowing temperatures in adjacent areas to rise, further exacerbating the fire situation.
b) Integrity Only Glazing
Definition:
“Integrity only glazing” refers to a type of glass designed to maintain its integrity during a fire, preventing the passage of flames and smoke for a specified duration. However, it does not provide any significant insulation, meaning that it may allow heat to transfer through the glass.
Examples:
1. Laminated Fire-Resistant Glass: This type of glass consists of multiple layers, with an interlayer that can help prevent the passage of flames and smoke, maintaining the visual continuity of spaces while offering limited fire resistance.
- Ceramic Glazing: Often used in fire doors or partitions, ceramic glazing can withstand high temperatures and maintain integrity during a fire, preventing the spread of flames and smoke while not significantly insulating against heat.
In summary, integrity only glazing is critical for maintaining compartmentation during a fire by preventing flame and smoke passage, although it does not insulate against heat transfer.
Examiner:
a) It was disappointing that a few candidates did not know how non-fire glass behaves in a fire
situation. Some candidates stated that the non-fire glass explodes, which is incorrect.
b) This part of the question was well answered by the majority of candidates with a few
candidates scoring full marks. A few candidates only gave 1 example of the type of fire
glass.
Describe open cavity barriers and state two locations where they would be used. (4 marks)
KP:
### Open Cavity Barriers
Description:
Open cavity barriers are fire-resistant materials or systems installed within vertical or horizontal cavities in buildings to prevent the spread of smoke and flames. They are designed to compartmentalize spaces and maintain the integrity of fire-rated walls, ceilings, or floors while allowing for air movement or services to pass through. These barriers often consist of intumescent materials that expand when exposed to heat, effectively sealing off the cavity during a fire.
Locations for Use
-
Between Floors in Multi-Story Buildings:
- Application: Open cavity barriers are often installed in service shafts or between floors to prevent the vertical spread of fire and smoke through these cavities, ensuring that different floors remain compartmentalized and enhancing overall fire safety.
-
Around Ductwork in Ceilings:
- Application: In spaces where air handling ducts pass through fire-rated ceilings or walls, open cavity barriers can be used to seal the spaces around the ducts. This helps to contain smoke and fire, preventing them from migrating to other parts of the building.
In summary, open cavity barriers are essential for maintaining fire safety by preventing the spread of smoke and flames in critical areas, particularly in multi-story buildings and around HVAC systems.
Examiner:
Many candidates struggled to answer this question with many taking guesses at the answer.
Some candidates could not provide a location where cavity barriers would be used.
Describe the factors to be taken into account when selecting and installing penetration seals
(4 marks)
KP:
When selecting and installing penetration seals, several critical factors must be considered to ensure effective fire protection and compliance with safety regulations. Here are four key factors:
-
Type of Penetration
- Description: Different types of penetrations (e.g., pipes, cables, ducts) require specific sealing solutions. Each type has unique characteristics regarding thermal expansion, movement, and fire performance.
- Consideration: Choose seals that are specifically designed for the type of penetration to ensure a proper fit and effective sealing against fire and smoke.
-
Fire Resistance Rating
- Description: The fire resistance rating of the surrounding construction (walls, floors) influences the choice of penetration seals. The seal must match or exceed the fire rating of the structure it is penetrating.
- Consideration: Ensure that the selected seal has a fire resistance rating that is compatible with the building’s fire protection strategy and complies with relevant building codes.
-
Movement and Thermal Expansion
- Description: Penetrations can be subject to movement or thermal expansion due to temperature changes. Seals must accommodate these movements without losing their effectiveness.
- Consideration: Use flexible sealant materials that can withstand movement and expansion while maintaining a fire-resistant barrier.
-
Installation Procedures and Environment
- Description: The installation process is critical to the performance of penetration seals. The environment in which the seal is installed (e.g., temperature, humidity) can also affect its performance.
- Consideration: Follow manufacturer guidelines for installation procedures carefully, and ensure that the environmental conditions are suitable for the materials being used to ensure optimal adhesion and performance.
In summary, careful consideration of the type of penetration, fire resistance rating, movement tolerance, and installation conditions is essential for selecting and installing effective penetration seals that maintain fire safety in buildings.
Examiner:
Candidates did not have the underpinning knowledge to answer this question with many only
scoring 1 mark for fire resistance.
Describe the composition and use of sealants/mastics. (5 marks)
AN:
Sealants/ mastics are typically made from acrylic or silicone and applied by trowel or mastic gun into openings and between and around suitable service penetrations. They may be used to seal around any penetrating service where testing indicates their suitability. They are also used in conjunction with coated batte/ boards where openings are small where penetrations are complex and where there is imperfection of fit between building elements
High pressure exerting sealants are installed into oversized apertures in the separating element, surrounding service penetrations. It there is a fire risk on both sides of the compartment wall or floor, HPE sealant may be required on both sides, the high pressure exerting sealant is installed to a pre described annular gapto a predetermined depth between service penetration and the construction element. The backing material for these sealants should be checked before use to ensure they are approved. High pressure exerting sealants tested in a rigid wall may not work when tested in a flexible wall without suitable framing out. Specifiers and installers should check that the supporting fire test evidence is applicable for the endnuse application envisaged
KP:
### Composition of Sealants/Mastics
Sealants and mastics are materials used to fill gaps, joints, and seams in construction to prevent the passage of air, water, or fire. Their composition typically includes the following components:
-
Polymers:
- Sealants often consist of flexible polymers such as silicone, polyurethane, or acrylic. These polymers provide elasticity, allowing the sealant to accommodate movement and thermal expansion.
-
Fillers:
- Inorganic or organic fillers (like calcium carbonate or silica) are added to improve the bulk and texture of the sealant. Fillers can also enhance properties such as durability and resistance to abrasion.
-
Additives:
- Various additives are included to impart specific characteristics, such as curing agents (to facilitate hardening), preservatives (to enhance shelf life), and pigments (for color).
-
Solvents or Water:
- Some sealants are solvent-based, while others are water-based. The choice of solvent affects the application properties and drying time. Water-based sealants are often preferred for ease of use and lower environmental impact.
Use of Sealants/Mastics
Sealants and mastics are utilized in a variety of construction applications:
-
Weatherproofing:
- They are used to seal joints and gaps in exterior facades, roofs, and windows, preventing water ingress and air leakage. This helps improve energy efficiency and protects against moisture damage.
-
Fire Stopping:
- Certain fire-rated sealants are designed to fill penetrations in fire-rated walls and floors, helping to prevent the spread of smoke and flames. They expand when exposed to heat, forming a barrier that enhances fire resistance.
-
Structural Movement:
- Sealants are employed in areas subject to movement due to thermal expansion or structural shifting (e.g., between concrete slabs or at expansion joints), allowing for flexibility while maintaining a watertight seal.
-
Interior Applications:
- Inside buildings, sealants can be used in areas such as bathrooms and kitchens to seal joints between tiles, sinks, and countertops, preventing water damage and mold growth.
-
Acoustic Applications:
- Specialized acoustic sealants are used in partitions and around doors and windows to reduce sound transmission, enhancing the acoustic performance of spaces.
In summary, sealants and mastics are essential materials in construction, composed of polymers, fillers, additives, and solvents or water, serving various purposes from weatherproofing to fire stopping and structural movement accommodation.
Examiner:
This question was well answered by candidates with a few candidates scoring full marks.
Some candidates did not know that sealants were composed of silicone or acrylic.
Stone wool mineral products are supplied in a number of forms when used as firestopping.
State the forms that such products take and state the factors to take into account when
installing these products. (3 marks)
AN:
Stone wool fire batt, matts and preformed shapes
Insulated fire sleeves
Small cavity barriers
Stone wool fire curtains
Fire protection boards
Stone wool wraps
Stone wool core doors
Whether they are the appropriate product to be used for that particular service penetration. Manufacturers guidance and tested details should be considered.
KP:
### Forms of Stone Wool Mineral Products for Firestopping
Stone wool mineral products used for firestopping are typically supplied in the following forms:
-
Batt Insulation:
- These are pre-cut slabs of stone wool that can be easily fitted into wall and floor cavities.
-
Loose Fill:
- This form consists of loose granules or fibers that can be poured or blown into gaps and voids for insulation and fire protection.
-
Pre-formed Sections:
- These include shaped pieces designed for specific applications, such as around pipes or cables, to provide a secure firestop.
Factors to Consider When Installing Stone Wool Products
-
Correct Sizing:
- Ensure that the stone wool product is cut or sized appropriately to fit snugly in the intended cavity without gaps. Proper fitting is crucial to maintain fire resistance.
-
Moisture and Environmental Conditions:
- Consider the installation environment, ensuring that the stone wool is dry and not exposed to moisture during installation. Wet conditions can affect its fire performance and integrity.
-
Compatibility with Other Materials:
- Check that the stone wool is compatible with adjacent materials, including sealants or coatings. Some materials may require specific types of adhesive or sealant to ensure a complete firestop.
In summary, stone wool mineral products are available in various forms, such as batt insulation, loose fill, and pre-formed sections. When installing these products, factors such as sizing, environmental conditions, and material compatibility should be taken into account to ensure effective firestopping.
Examiner:
The majority of candidates failed to provide the correct answer this question with most just
trying to guess the answer. Many candidates did not score any marks for this question.
Explain the purpose and operation of an intumescent damper. (5 marks)
KP:
### Purpose and Operation of an Intumescent Damper
Purpose:
An intumescent damper is a critical fire protection device installed in ventilation systems, designed to enhance fire safety by preventing the spread of smoke and flames through ductwork during a fire event. Its main purposes include:
- Compartmentation: By sealing off duct openings, intumescent dampers help maintain compartmentation within a building, containing fire and smoke to specific areas and protecting escape routes.
- Protection of Occupants and Property: By controlling the movement of smoke and heat, these dampers provide vital protection for building occupants and reduce property damage during a fire.
- Compliance with Regulations: Intumescent dampers are often required by building codes and fire safety regulations to ensure that ventilation systems do not compromise overall fire safety.
Operation:
Intumescent dampers operate through the following mechanism:
- Normal Conditions: Under standard operating conditions (i.e., when there is no fire), the damper remains open to allow air to flow freely through the ductwork. This is typically achieved using mechanical components such as blades that are held in an open position.
- Heat Detection: When a fire occurs, the temperature within the duct increases. Intumescent materials within the damper are designed to react to this heat.
- Expansion: As the temperature rises, the intumescent material begins to expand rapidly, often by several times its original size. This expansion occurs within a specific temperature range, usually around 200-300°C (392-572°F).
- Sealing Off the Duct: The expanded intumescent material fills the gap between the damper blades, effectively sealing the duct and preventing smoke and flames from passing through. This action helps contain the fire to the area of origin.
- Re-Opening: Once the fire is extinguished and the temperature returns to normal, the intumescent material will contract, allowing the damper to reset to its original position for normal airflow.
In summary, intumescent dampers play a crucial role in fire protection by sealing off ventilation systems during a fire, helping to contain smoke and flames while ensuring safety and compliance with regulations. Their operation relies on the expansion of intumescent materials in response to heat, allowing them to function effectively when needed.
Examiner:
Some candidates struggled to answer this question as they did not have the underpinning
knowledge to answer the question. A few candidates appeared to confuse a fire damper with
a fire rated door vent. Most candidates scored 2-3 marks for this question.
In relation to the construction and design of the building envelope, describe how the use of
cladding can affect fire resistance. (3 marks)
KP:
### Impact of Cladding on Fire Resistance in Building Envelope
The use of cladding in the construction and design of the building envelope can significantly affect fire resistance in several ways:
-
Material Selection:
- Impact: The fire resistance of cladding is heavily influenced by the materials used. Non-combustible materials (e.g., brick, stone, certain metal panels) can enhance the fire resistance of the building envelope, while combustible materials (e.g., wood, some plastics) may increase the risk of fire spread.
- Consideration: Choosing appropriate materials that comply with fire safety regulations is essential to minimize fire risk.
-
Installation Techniques:
- Impact: The method of installing cladding can create gaps or cavities that may allow fire to spread vertically or horizontally. Poor installation can compromise fire barriers and lead to increased fire risk.
- Consideration: Proper installation techniques, including sealing joints and ensuring that cladding is securely attached, are crucial to maintaining the integrity of fire-resistant designs.
-
Thermal Properties:
- Impact: Cladding can impact the thermal performance of the building envelope, potentially influencing heat retention during a fire. Certain cladding materials may ignite and release heat or flames, contributing to the fire load and increasing the potential for fire spread.
- Consideration: Understanding the thermal properties of cladding materials and their behavior under fire conditions is important for designing a fire-safe building envelope.
In summary, the choice of cladding materials, installation methods, and their thermal properties all play a critical role in affecting the fire resistance of a building envelope, making careful consideration essential in the design and construction process.
Examiner:
Many candidates appeared to misread or misunderstand this question. Many candidates
were unsure about cladding. A few candidates provided the specification for cladding but did
not answer the question. Many candidates stated that cladding must be fire resistant, the
question asked to describe how the use of cladding can affect fire resistance i.e. poorly
fitted. Gaps providing a route for fire to travel, and cladding can increase fire load.
Describe the purpose and the operational features of fire resisting rolling shutters. (6 marks)
KP:
### Purpose of Fire Resisting Rolling Shutters
Fire resisting rolling shutters are installed in buildings primarily to enhance fire safety by creating barriers that prevent the spread of fire and smoke. Their key purposes include:
- Compartmentation: By isolating different areas within a building, these shutters help contain fires to specific zones, preventing them from spreading to adjacent spaces and protecting escape routes.
- Property Protection: Rolling shutters protect valuable assets, equipment, and inventory by sealing off openings, thereby reducing the potential for fire damage.
- Compliance with Regulations: Many building codes require the installation of fire-resistant barriers like rolling shutters in certain locations, ensuring adherence to fire safety standards.
Operational Features of Fire Resisting Rolling Shutters
-
Automatic Activation:
- Fire resisting rolling shutters are typically equipped with automatic closing mechanisms that are activated by fire alarm systems or heat detectors. Upon detection of smoke or heat, the shutters will descend to seal off the area.
-
Manual Control:
- In addition to automatic operation, these shutters often include manual controls, allowing personnel to operate them as needed during emergencies or for routine use.
-
Fire Resistance Rating:
- Rolling shutters are designed to provide specific fire resistance ratings (e.g., 30, 60, or 120 minutes) based on the materials used and the design of the shutter. This rating indicates how long the shutter can withstand fire exposure while maintaining its integrity.
-
Material Composition:
- Typically constructed from materials such as steel or aluminum, fire resisting rolling shutters are designed to withstand high temperatures and provide thermal insulation. Some models may incorporate intumescent materials that expand upon exposure to heat, further enhancing fire resistance.
-
Smoke Containment:
- Besides blocking flames, many fire resisting rolling shutters are designed to limit smoke penetration, further contributing to the compartmentalization of spaces and improving safety for occupants during a fire event.
-
Maintenance and Testing:
- Regular maintenance and testing are essential to ensure the proper functioning of fire resisting rolling shutters. This includes checking the automatic activation system, manual controls, and overall structural integrity to confirm compliance with safety standards.
In summary, fire resisting rolling shutters serve the vital purpose of fire compartmentation and property protection, featuring operational characteristics such as automatic activation, manual control, specific fire resistance ratings, and materials designed to withstand high temperatures. Regular maintenance is crucial to their effectiveness in a fire event.
Examiner:
Many candidates struggled to answer this question. Most answers included that they were
activated by the fire alarm or fusible link, they descended in a control manner, with a few
stating that they had an audible/visual warning system. Some candidates described the
construction of roller shutters.
Describe the checks that you would carry out when inspecting the installation of ironmongery
fixed to fire doors. (6 marks)
I would check that the fire door has the appropriate number of hinges (3 minimum) I would ensure it is fitted with a self closing device if required for example a service riser door will not require a self closer as this should be locked when not in use. If a letter box is installed I would check that this formed part of the original door and is not a later addition, this will need to have additional fire resistance built in to ensure the gap doesn’t allow the passage of fire and smoke. If the door has a latch I would check that the door latches when self closing. I would ensure all ironmongery is CE approved. Check that all ironmongery components are applicable to that door assembly and are in line with door certification. Check the general condition of all ironmongery. Check that the door closer is closing in a timely manner and doesn’t slam shut.
KP:
When inspecting the installation of ironmongery fixed to fire doors, several critical checks should be performed to ensure compliance with fire safety regulations and functionality. Here are the key checks:
-
Correct Type of Ironmongery
- Check: Ensure that the ironmongery (e.g., hinges, locks, latches, and handles) is specifically rated for fire doors and complies with relevant standards.
- Importance: Using appropriate fire-rated ironmongery is essential for maintaining the fire door’s integrity and performance.
-
Proper Installation of Hinges
- Check: Inspect that hinges are installed securely and correctly aligned, with the correct number of hinges used as per the fire door manufacturer’s specifications.
- Importance: Misalignment or insufficient hinges can affect the door’s ability to close properly and maintain its fire resistance.
-
Functionality of Locks and Latches
- Check: Test the operation of locks and latches to ensure they engage and disengage smoothly. Confirm that they are fully functional and can secure the door when closed.
- Importance: A malfunctioning lock can prevent the door from being closed securely, compromising fire safety.
-
Sealing of Gaps
- Check: Examine the gap between the door and frame where the ironmongery is fitted to ensure that it does not exceed allowable limits and that seals are properly applied.
- Importance: Gaps that are too wide can allow smoke and flames to pass through, reducing the effectiveness of the fire door.
-
Surface Damage and Condition
- Check: Inspect all ironmongery components for any signs of damage, corrosion, or wear that could affect their performance.
- Importance: Damaged components can compromise the door’s function and overall fire safety.
-
Compliance with Fire Safety Regulations
- Check: Verify that all ironmongery installations comply with applicable fire safety regulations and standards (e.g., British Standards, local building codes).
- Importance: Compliance ensures that the fire door will perform as intended during a fire event and meets legal safety requirements.
In summary, the inspection of ironmongery fixed to fire doors should include checks for the correct type, proper installation, functionality, sealing of gaps, condition of materials, and compliance with regulations to ensure the door’s effectiveness in maintaining fire safety.
Examiner:
This question was poorly answered with many candidates only scoring 1-2 marks. Many
candidates tried to guess answers for this question. Many candidates failed to stated that fire
doors should have a minimum of 3 hinges, are fitted with a self-closing device. Very few
candidates mentioned that letter boxes should have additional fire resistance built into them
to prevent fire spread or arson attacks.
a) Describe the fire tetrahedron and explain the implications for fire. (4 marks)
b) Explain the term “exothermic reaction”. (2 marks)
KP:
### a) Fire Tetrahedron
The fire tetrahedron is a model that represents the four essential elements required for fire to occur. These elements are:
- Heat: A source of heat is necessary to raise the material to its ignition temperature. This can come from various sources, such as open flames, electrical sparks, or hot surfaces.
- Fuel: Fuel is any combustible material that can burn, including solids (like wood and paper), liquids (like gasoline), and gases (like propane).
- Oxygen: A sufficient concentration of oxygen (typically around 16% or more in the air) is needed to sustain combustion.
- Chemical Chain Reaction: This is the process that maintains the fire once it has started. It involves the release of energy from the chemical reactions occurring between the fuel and oxygen, which can propagate the fire.
Implications for Fire:
- Understanding the fire tetrahedron is critical for fire prevention and control. By eliminating one of the four elements, a fire can be extinguished. For instance:
- Removing Heat: Cooling the fire with water or other extinguishing agents.
- Removing Fuel: Using firebreaks or controlling combustible materials.
- Reducing Oxygen: Smothering the fire with a blanket or foam.
- Interrupting the Chemical Reaction: Using fire extinguishers that disrupt the combustion process.
b) Exothermic Reaction
An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of heat to its surroundings. During this process, the total energy of the products is lower than that of the reactants, resulting in the release of energy.
Key Points:
- Examples: Common examples of exothermic reactions include combustion (burning fuels), respiration in living organisms, and the reaction of acids with bases.
- Implications: The heat generated during exothermic reactions can contribute to increasing the temperature of the surrounding environment, which is a crucial factor in the fire tetrahedron and can lead to the ignition of nearby combustible materials.
Examiner:
In responding to part a), many candidates mentioned only fuel, heat and oxygen and omitted
to consider that the fourth component of the fire tetrahedron is chemical reaction.
In responding to part b), some candidates were unable to explain that an exothermic
reaction is a reaction that releases energy into the environment in the form of light or heat.
Explain the risks to human health associated with the inhalation of smoke. (4 marks
KP:
Inhalation of smoke poses significant risks to human health, primarily due to the toxic substances and particulate matter it contains. Here are four key risks:
-
Respiratory Irritation:
- Smoke contains various irritants, including carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and particulate matter, which can cause inflammation of the respiratory tract. This can lead to symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, and exacerbation of pre-existing respiratory conditions like asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
-
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning:
- Smoke often contains carbon monoxide (CO), a colorless, odorless gas that can interfere with the blood’s ability to carry oxygen. Inhalation of CO can lead to symptoms ranging from headache and dizziness to confusion, unconsciousness, and even death at high concentrations.
-
Chemical Exposure:
- Smoke can contain a variety of harmful chemicals, such as hydrogen cyanide, formaldehyde, and benzene, which can have acute and chronic health effects. Acute exposure can lead to respiratory distress, while long-term exposure can increase the risk of cancers and other serious health issues.
-
Reduced Oxygen Availability:
- Smoke can displace oxygen in the air, leading to a hypoxic environment. Low oxygen levels can impair bodily functions, leading to dizziness, impaired judgment, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness or death.
In summary, the inhalation of smoke poses serious health risks, including respiratory irritation, carbon monoxide poisoning, exposure to harmful chemicals, and reduced oxygen availability, all of which can have immediate and long-term health consequences.
Examiner:
Some candidates appeared to guess at answers to this question with many failing to explain
the risks. However, most candidates scored at least 50% of the marks available.
Describe four factors that affect human behaviour when faced with a threat of fire in a
building. (4 marks)
AN:
Herd Mentality – People have a tendency to copy the behaviours of others this is known as the herd mentality, if one person decides to panic this can lead to mass panic. If one person is refuses to leave this could influence others to not evacuate, likewise if people start to evacuate in an orderly fashion then others will follow suit.
Knowledge of the building layout – people tend to try and exit a building the way they entered rather than using their closest fire exit. This could potentially put themselves in danger.
Family or friends within the same building but separated can lead to people trying to regroup/find each other rather than exiting the building immediately, this can put themselves and others in danger as the delay in evacuating could provide sufficient time for the fire to develop.
False Alarms – If the building is prone to false alarms people will start to ignore the alarm and fail to react properly in the event of a real fire.
KP:
When faced with a threat of fire in a building, several factors can significantly affect human behavior. Here are four key factors:
-
Familiarity with the Environment:
- Impact: Individuals who are familiar with the layout of the building and the locations of exits and safety equipment are more likely to respond quickly and effectively during a fire. In contrast, those who are unfamiliar may become disoriented or panic, leading to delayed evacuation.
-
Perception of the Threat:
- Impact: How individuals perceive the severity of the fire threat can influence their response. If people believe the fire is serious, they are more likely to evacuate promptly. Conversely, if they perceive the threat as minor, they may hesitate or delay leaving, potentially putting themselves at greater risk.
-
Social Influence:
- Impact: The behavior of others can significantly influence individual actions during a fire emergency. For example, if people observe others calmly evacuating, they are more likely to follow suit. Conversely, if individuals see others panicking or not responding, they may also become anxious or uncertain about the appropriate actions to take.
-
Emergency Training and Preparedness:
- Impact: Prior training and preparedness for fire emergencies, such as participating in fire drills or having knowledge of evacuation procedures, can enhance an individual’s confidence and ability to act decisively. Lack of training may lead to confusion and a higher likelihood of panic during an actual fire situation.
In summary, factors such as familiarity with the environment, perception of the threat, social influence, and emergency training significantly affect human behavior during a fire emergency, impacting the effectiveness of evacuation and overall safety.
Examiner:
This question was generally answered well with most appearing to have an appreciation of
the issues involved. Many candidates scored full marks for their response.
a) Define the term “means of escape”. (3 marks)
b) Explain the role of passive fire protection in relation to means of escape. (4 marks
AN:
a) Define the term “means of escape”. (3 marks)
A “means of escape” can be defined asthe structural means whereby a safe route is provided for people to travel from any location in a building or structure to a place of safety without the need of outside assistance. Means of escape must be clearly identified by signage and be illuminated by emergency lighting to ensure safe egress should the power fail.
b) Explain the role of passive fire protection in relation to means of escape. (4 marks)
The role of passive fire protection is to protect the means of escape for the designed period of fire resistance. This needs to be a minimum of 30 minutes but could be 60 minutes or more in some instances. Means of escape can also provide a place of relative safety in the form of a corridor or stairwell, therefore passive fire protection protects people from the effects of fire until they reach ultimate safety. Fire Doors are a great way to protect means of escape from the spread of fire and smoke. Fire doors will typically self close in the event of a fire preventing the fire from entering a means of escape. Cross corridor doors are also a great way of preventing smoke spread along a means of escape (corridor). Passive fire protection measures help to form compartments in a building these compartments divide a building into smaller manageable areas so in the event of a fire the fire is prevented from escalating to a larger fire. Smaller fires are easier to extinguish
KP:
### a) Definition of “Means of Escape”
The term “means of escape” refers to the accessible and unobstructed routes and provisions that allow occupants of a building to safely evacuate in the event of a fire or other emergency. This includes:
- Exits: Doors, stairs, and other openings that lead to a safe area outside the building.
- Escape Routes: The paths occupants take to reach these exits, which must be clear of obstructions and adequately lit.
- Signage: Appropriate signage that guides occupants towards the exits and indicates the safest routes.
The design and maintenance of means of escape are critical for ensuring that people can evacuate quickly and safely, minimizing the risk of injury or loss of life during an emergency.
b) Role of Passive Fire Protection in Relation to Means of Escape
Passive fire protection (PFP) refers to the methods and materials used to contain fires and protect building occupants without the need for active systems (like sprinklers or alarms). Its role in relation to means of escape includes:
-
Compartmentation:
- PFP helps create fire compartments within a building, limiting the spread of smoke and flames. This ensures that escape routes remain clear and usable, providing safe passage for occupants.
-
Fire-Resistant Materials:
- The use of fire-resistant materials in walls, floors, and doors helps to protect means of escape by preventing fire from compromising structural integrity or creating obstacles. Fire doors, for instance, allow for safe egress while restricting the spread of fire.
-
Smoke Control:
- PFP systems, such as smoke barriers and fire-resistant glazing, reduce the accumulation of smoke in escape routes. This is crucial, as smoke inhalation can be more dangerous than flames, impairing visibility and causing panic among occupants.
-
Durability and Reliability:
- PFP components are designed to remain effective over time, ensuring that escape routes are consistently protected against fire hazards. This reliability is vital during emergencies, allowing occupants to trust the integrity of the means of escape.
In summary, passive fire protection plays a crucial role in ensuring that means of escape are safe, accessible, and effective during a fire emergency by containing fires, limiting smoke spread, and using fire-resistant materials to protect escape routes.
Examiner:
Candidates often appeared to guess when composing their response to part a). Candidates
should be aware that means of escape is the structural means whereby a safe route is
provided for people to travel from any location in a building or structure to a place of safety
without the need of outside assistance.
Responses to part b) were often poor with candidates failing to appreciate factors such as
the role of compartmentation in controlling the spread of fire and smoke or the use of fire
doors, particularly those with smoke seals, in protecting escape routes.
In relation to fire resistance, explain what is meant by the term “stability” and explain how
passive fire protection contributes to maintaining stability. (4 marks)
AN:
Stability relates to the structure of a building and passive fire protections measures are built into this structure to maintain this stability in the event of a fire for a designed period of time. Without these fire protective measures a building could prematurely collapse preventing people from escaping and/or fire services fighting the fire in a timely manner. Structural frames are typically constructed using concrete, timber or steel. All of which require passive fire protection measures to increase their resistance to fire. For example structural elements such as columns can be boxed in with fire rated materials such as gypsum plasterboard. Structural steel will typically sprayed with an intumescent coating, in the event of a fire this will char and expand to provide a protective layer which delays the temperature rise of the steel, as steel will fail at 550 degrees.
KP:
### Stability in Fire Resistance
Stability refers to the ability of a structure or its components to maintain their load-bearing capacity and overall structural integrity during a fire. This means that the structure must be able to withstand the effects of heat and fire without collapsing or losing its function for a specified duration. Stability is a crucial aspect of fire resistance, as it ensures that occupants have enough time to evacuate safely and that fire services can respond effectively.
Contribution of Passive Fire Protection to Stability
Passive fire protection (PFP) contributes to maintaining stability in several ways:
-
Fire-Resistant Materials:
- PFP uses materials that can withstand high temperatures without losing structural integrity. For example, reinforced concrete and fire-resistant steel coatings can protect structural elements from the heat of a fire, preventing them from weakening and collapsing.
-
Compartmentation:
- PFP strategies, such as the creation of fire compartments, help contain fire within specific areas of a building. By limiting the spread of heat and flames, the overall stability of the structure is preserved, allowing non-affected areas to maintain their load-bearing capacity.
-
Intumescent Coatings:
- Intumescent paints and coatings applied to steel structures expand when exposed to high temperatures, providing insulation and protecting the steel from reaching critical temperatures. This prevents the loss of strength in structural steel, which can occur if it gets too hot.
-
Fire Stopping:
- PFP includes fire-stopping materials that seal openings and penetrations in walls, floors, and ceilings. By preventing the passage of fire and smoke, these materials help to maintain the thermal performance of fire-resisting elements, thus preserving their stability during a fire event.
In summary, stability in fire resistance refers to the ability of a structure to maintain its load-bearing capacity during a fire. Passive fire protection contributes to this stability through the use of fire-resistant materials, compartmentation, intumescent coatings, and fire-stopping measures, all of which help to protect structural integrity in the event of a fire.
Examiner:
Many candidates were unable to provide full responses to this question with some providing
only a reference to loadbearing capacity.
Explain the issues and limitations that need to be taken into consideration when interpreting
fire testing and assessments. (5 marks
KP:
Interpreting fire testing and assessments involves several issues and limitations that must be carefully considered to ensure accurate understanding and application. Here are five key points:
-
Scope of Testing:
- Issue: Fire tests are often conducted under specific conditions and may not fully represent real-world scenarios. The results may vary based on factors such as building materials, design, and the fire load.
- Limitation: It’s essential to understand that the test results may not be universally applicable to all situations or building configurations, leading to potential misinterpretations.
-
Variability in Standards:
- Issue: Different standards (e.g., BS 476, EN 13501) may have varying requirements and testing methodologies. This variability can lead to discrepancies in fire resistance ratings.
- Limitation: Comparisons across different tests or assessments may be misleading if the same standards are not used, necessitating careful consideration of the applicable regulations.
-
Time and Environmental Factors:
- Issue: Fire tests are typically time-limited and may not account for prolonged exposure or the cumulative effects of repeated fires or varying environmental conditions.
- Limitation: The performance of materials and assemblies over time may differ from test results, potentially compromising safety in real-life applications.
-
Interpretation of Results:
- Issue: The complexity of fire behavior and interactions can make it challenging to interpret results accurately. Factors like thermal expansion, smoke production, and structural integrity under fire conditions can be intricate.
- Limitation: Misinterpretation of results may lead to inappropriate design choices or safety measures, highlighting the need for expertise in fire science and engineering.
-
Reliance on Manufacturer Claims:
- Issue: Manufacturers often provide fire test results to promote their products. While these tests are valuable, they can be selectively reported or lack context regarding their applicability.
- Limitation: Relying solely on manufacturer claims without independent verification or understanding the testing context can result in overconfidence in a product’s fire performance.
In summary, interpreting fire testing and assessments requires careful consideration of the scope of testing, variability in standards, time and environmental factors, the complexity of results, and the reliability of manufacturer claims. Awareness of these issues and limitations is crucial for informed decision-making in fire safety.
Examiner:
Candidates often appeared to guess at answers to this question with most referencing only
the fact that reports could be complex and difficult to understand. Good responses included
points such as:
* Test relates only to the item tested and not to any variation of the item
* Variations of materials may be available eg different thickness, densities or dimensions
* It is not possible to test every possible fire option so only a limited number of
tests/contexts may have been completed
* The context of the testing may be simulation of a situation which does not reflect reality.
Passive fire protections measures should be taken into account when developing plans for
building projects. One reason for this is to ensure that the correct materials are purchased
in time. Identify and explain two other reasons. (4 marks
KP:
When developing plans for building projects, incorporating passive fire protection (PFP) measures is crucial for several reasons beyond ensuring timely procurement of materials. Here are two additional reasons:
-
Compliance with Regulatory Requirements:
- Explanation: Building codes and fire safety regulations often mandate specific PFP measures to ensure the safety of occupants and the protection of property. By integrating PFP into the planning phase, project managers can ensure that the design complies with these legal requirements, thereby avoiding potential fines, penalties, or the need for costly redesigns later in the project. Early consideration of PFP helps ensure that the building meets safety standards from the outset.
-
Enhancing Safety and Occupant Protection:
- Explanation: Early integration of PFP measures is essential for creating a safe environment for occupants. Properly designed PFP systems, such as fire-resistant walls, ceilings, and doors, help contain fires and limit smoke spread, providing critical time for evacuation. By planning these measures at the beginning, the overall safety strategy of the building can be optimized, ultimately reducing the risk of injury or loss of life during a fire incident.
In summary, integrating passive fire protection measures in the planning stages of building projects is essential not only for compliance with regulations but also for enhancing occupant safety and ensuring effective fire protection strategies.
Examiner:
Responses varied with some candidates scoring well but others unable to provide two valid
reasons.
identify and briefly describe three different types of fire suppression equipment available
within a building. (6 marks)
KP:
Here are three different types of fire suppression equipment commonly found within buildings:
-
Fire Extinguishers:
- Description: Fire extinguishers are portable devices designed to put out small fires by discharging various extinguishing agents. They come in different types, each suitable for specific classes of fire (e.g., water for Class A fires, foam for Class B, CO2 for electrical fires, and dry powder for multiple classes). Proper placement and maintenance are critical for effectiveness.
-
Sprinkler Systems:
- Description: Automatic sprinkler systems consist of a network of pipes and sprinkler heads that distribute water to control or extinguish fires. When a fire activates the heat-sensitive element in a sprinkler head, it releases water onto the fire. Sprinkler systems are effective in protecting larger areas and can significantly reduce fire damage and smoke spread.
-
Fire Suppression Systems (e.g., Clean Agent Systems):
- Description: These systems use non-water-based agents, such as halon or FM-200, to suppress fires without damaging sensitive equipment. They are commonly used in areas like data centers, server rooms, and museums where traditional water-based systems might cause collateral damage. Clean agent systems quickly disperse and reduce the heat and oxygen levels needed for combustion.
In summary, fire suppression equipment in buildings includes fire extinguishers for portable fire control, sprinkler systems for automatic fire suppression, and clean agent systems for protecting sensitive environments. Each type serves a specific purpose and is critical for effective fire safety management.
Examiner:
question was usually answered well with many candidates able to achieve all of the
marks available.
Concrete framed buildings are usually designed and constructed in a way that is deemed to
satisfy from a fire resistance perspective.
a) State, with an example, the circumstances when it would it be necessary to provide
added fire resistance to the concrete frame of a building. (2 marks)
b) Describe how additional fire resistance could be achieved. (2 marks)
KP:
Concrete framed buildings are usually designed and constructed in a way that is deemed to
satisfy from a fire resistance perspective.
a) State, with an example, the circumstances when it would it be necessary to provide
added fire resistance to the concrete frame of a building. (2 marks)
b) Describe how additional fire resistance could be achieved. (2 marks)
Examiner:
Part a) was often answered well but few candidates scored both marks for part b). In
responding to part b), few candidates considered over- cladding with appropriately tested
fire-resistant board systems or increasing the thickness of concrete.
a) Explain what is meant by “section factor” and state the formula. (4 marks)
b) Explain how section factor affects the required thickness of applied fire protection. (2
marks)
KP:
### a) Section Factor
Definition: The section factor (often denoted as “S”) is a measure used in fire safety engineering to assess the fire resistance of structural elements, particularly in steel constructions. It represents the ratio of the exposed surface area of a structural element to its volume. A higher section factor indicates a greater surface area relative to the volume, which can lead to increased heat absorption and a more rapid rise in temperature during a fire.
Formula: The section factor is calculated using the following formula:
S= A/V
Where:
S = Section factor (m²/m³)
A = Exposed surface area (m²)
V = Volume of the section (m³)
b) Effect of Section Factor on Required Thickness of Applied Fire Protection
Explanation: The section factor directly influences the required thickness of applied fire protection measures (such as intumescent coatings or board systems) needed to achieve a specific fire resistance rating.
- Higher Section Factor: If a structural element has a high section factor, it has more surface area exposed to heat, meaning it will heat up more quickly. As a result, a thicker layer of fire protection is required to ensure the element maintains its structural integrity for the necessary duration during a fire.
- Lower Section Factor: Conversely, a lower section factor indicates less surface area relative to volume, allowing the element to absorb heat more slowly. This often means that a thinner application of fire protection may be sufficient to meet the fire resistance requirements.
In summary, the section factor is crucial for determining the appropriate thickness of fire protection materials, with higher section factors requiring thicker applications to maintain fire resistance.
Examiner: Most candidates were able to score at least half of the marks for this question. A few
candidates were unable to state the formula correctly when responding to part a).
In relation to structural steel, explain the purpose and use of cladding systems made from
fire-resisting boards or stone wool products and describe the situations where they may be
used. (4 marks)
KP:
Cladding systems made from fire-resisting boards or stone wool products serve critical purposes in enhancing the fire safety of structural steel. Here’s an explanation of their purpose, use, and appropriate situations for application:
Purpose and Use of Fire-Resisting Cladding Systems
-
Thermal Insulation:
- Purpose: Fire-resisting boards and stone wool products provide thermal insulation to structural steel elements, helping to maintain their temperature below critical limits during a fire. This is essential for preventing the loss of structural integrity and ensuring that steel components do not reach temperatures that could lead to weakening or collapse.
- Use: These materials are typically installed around steel columns, beams, and other structural elements as part of a fire protection strategy.
-
Fire Resistance:
- Purpose: Cladding systems enhance the fire resistance of structural steel by creating a protective barrier that limits heat transfer to the underlying steel. This contributes to the overall fire resistance rating of the structure, allowing it to withstand fire exposure for designated time periods (e.g., 30, 60, or 120 minutes).
- Use: The application of fire-resisting cladding is critical in buildings where maintaining the integrity of structural elements during a fire is crucial for occupant safety and effective emergency response.
Situations for Use
-
Commercial and Industrial Buildings:
- In large commercial buildings, warehouses, and industrial facilities, where extensive steel frameworks are common, fire-resisting cladding is essential to protect against potential fire hazards and to comply with building codes that mandate fire safety measures.
-
High-Rise Buildings:
- In high-rise constructions, fire-resisting cladding systems are used to protect structural steel from fire spread between floors and to maintain the stability of the building under fire conditions, ensuring that evacuation routes remain safe and usable.
-
Healthcare and Educational Facilities:
- In hospitals, schools, and other public buildings, fire-resisting cladding helps ensure the safety of occupants by containing fires and providing adequate time for evacuation, protecting not only the structure but also the people within.
In summary, cladding systems made from fire-resisting boards or stone wool products serve to insulate and protect structural steel from fire damage, ensuring compliance with safety regulations and enhancing overall fire safety in various building types.
Examiner: This question was often answered poorly with few candidates scoring more than two marks.
Some candidates appeared to miss the final part of the question and did not give examples
of use.
One of the factors to be taken into account when determining the choice of fire protection
system for different purposes is the level of fire rating required. State four other factors that
would be taken into account. (4 marks)
KP:
When determining the choice of fire protection system for different purposes, several factors should be considered in addition to the required fire rating. Here are four key factors:
-
Building Use and Occupancy:
- The purpose of the building and the number of occupants can significantly influence the choice of fire protection system. For example, high-occupancy buildings such as theaters or schools may require more stringent fire protection measures compared to warehouses.
-
Construction Materials:
- The materials used in the construction of the building can impact fire protection choices. Non-combustible materials may require different types of fire protection than those used with combustible materials, influencing the system’s design and installation.
-
Compliance with Regulations and Standards:
- Local building codes, fire safety regulations, and industry standards dictate specific fire protection requirements. The chosen system must comply with these regulations to ensure safety and legal adherence.
-
Cost and Maintenance Considerations:
- Budget constraints and ongoing maintenance costs are critical factors. The initial cost of installation, the long-term maintenance requirements, and the lifespan of the fire protection system can all influence decision-making. A balance between effectiveness and cost efficiency is necessary.
These factors collectively help ensure that the selected fire protection system is suitable for the specific needs and risks associated with the building and its intended use.
Examiner: Some candidates were able to score full marks for this question but others failed to consider
factors such as:
* Guidance from manufacturers
* The robustness required
* Junctions between different fire protection systems
* Potential future adaptations
* Correct installation
* Regulatory requirements
* Aesthetics
* Whether it would be subject to environmental exposure
Describe the following types of fire-retardant treatments used for timber and wood-derived
building materials. For each type of treatment, identify one factor that affects effectiveness:
a) surface coating (3 marks)
b) impregnation (3 marks)
KP:
### a) Surface Coating
Description:
Surface coatings for fire retardant treatment involve applying a fire-resistant paint or varnish directly to the surface of timber and wood-derived materials. These coatings form a protective layer that helps to delay ignition and reduce the rate of combustion. When exposed to heat, the coating can char and create a barrier that protects the underlying material.
Factor Affecting Effectiveness:
- Thickness of Application: The thickness of the applied coating significantly affects its performance. A thicker layer generally provides better protection by enhancing the charring process and prolonging the time before the underlying timber reaches its ignition point.
b) Impregnation
Description:
Impregnation involves the use of fire-retardant chemicals that are absorbed into the wood fibers. This treatment can be applied through various methods, such as pressure treatment or diffusion, allowing the chemicals to penetrate deeply into the timber. The chemicals work to inhibit combustion and reduce smoke generation when the wood is exposed to fire.
Factor Affecting Effectiveness:
- Wood Species and Density: The effectiveness of impregnation treatments can vary based on the type of wood and its density. Different species absorb fire retardants to varying degrees, with denser woods often requiring higher pressures or longer treatment times to achieve adequate penetration and effectiveness.
These descriptions and factors illustrate how different fire-retardant treatments work and what considerations influence their performance in protecting timber and wood-derived materials from fire.
Examiner:
Candidates were often able to provide some information about each of the treatments.
However, few provided sufficient details to secure all of the marks available. It was common
to omit part b) of the question.
Describe the purpose and uses of fire resisting partitions. (6 marks
KP:
### Purpose of Fire-Resisting Partitions
-
Fire Containment:
- Purpose: Fire-resisting partitions are designed to contain fires within specific areas of a building, preventing the spread of flames and smoke to adjacent spaces. This containment is crucial for limiting damage and protecting life during a fire incident.
-
Protection of Escape Routes:
- Purpose: These partitions help safeguard escape routes, such as corridors and stairwells, ensuring that they remain safe and accessible for occupants during a fire. This is vital for enabling effective evacuation and minimizing the risk of smoke inhalation.
-
Structural Integrity:
- Purpose: Fire-resisting partitions contribute to the overall stability and structural integrity of a building by preventing fire from compromising load-bearing elements. By protecting these critical components, they help maintain the building’s safety during a fire event.
Uses of Fire-Resisting Partitions
-
Commercial Buildings:
- Use: In offices, retail spaces, and other commercial establishments, fire-resisting partitions are installed to create separate fire compartments. This is essential for compliance with building codes and regulations that mandate fire safety measures.
-
Healthcare Facilities:
- Use: In hospitals and clinics, fire-resisting partitions are used to protect sensitive areas like patient rooms and surgical suites. This helps ensure the safety of vulnerable populations and provides critical time for evacuation if necessary.
-
Industrial Settings:
- Use: In factories and warehouses, these partitions can separate areas with different fire risks, such as storage of flammable materials from general workspaces. This zoning helps manage fire risks effectively.
-
Multi-Family Residential Buildings:
- Use: In apartment complexes, fire-resisting partitions are employed between units and common areas to prevent fire spread, ensuring the safety of residents and allowing for more time for fire services to respond.
In summary, fire-resisting partitions play a crucial role in fire safety by containing fires, protecting escape routes, and maintaining structural integrity. Their applications span various building types, ensuring compliance with safety regulations and enhancing overall occupant protection.
Examiner: This question was not always answered well and candidates rarely provided sufficient detail
to score high marks.
Candidates often omitted to include the fact that the main purpose of a fire resisting partition
is to provide a fire-resisting division of space. Fire resisting partitions can contain a fire
within a space or provide a corridor for means of escape. They are frequently designed to
provide a fire resisting division from one structural element to another. They may also be
used as an independent lining to an external wall or for additional protection for high risks.
Describe how timber joist floors behave in fire and explain how this affects the type of fire
resistance provided. (4 marks)
KP:
### Behavior of Timber Joist Floors in Fire
-
Combustion Characteristics:
- Timber joists are combustible materials that can ignite and burn when exposed to high temperatures. In a fire, the exposed surfaces of the joists will char, which helps to slow down the combustion process. However, this charring reduces the effective cross-section of the joist, weakening its structural integrity over time.
-
Heat Transfer:
- Timber floors can conduct heat, which may lead to the adjacent materials heating up and potentially igniting. The speed at which heat penetrates the timber can vary depending on the density and moisture content of the wood, but generally, timber can be susceptible to rapid temperature increases in a fire scenario.
Impact on Fire Resistance Provided
-
Charring Rate and Load-Bearing Capacity:
- The charring of timber slows down the fire’s progress, allowing the interior of the joist to remain intact for a certain duration. This property contributes to the fire resistance of the floor, often providing a fire-resistance rating of up to 30-60 minutes, depending on factors such as the thickness of the timber and the exposure conditions.
-
Fire Protection Requirements:
- Due to their combustible nature, timber joist floors often require additional fire protection measures, such as the application of fire-retardant treatments or the installation of fire-resisting ceiling systems below. This ensures that the overall fire resistance of the floor assembly meets the required safety standards for the building type and occupancy.
In summary, while timber joist floors can char and provide some degree of fire resistance, their combustible nature necessitates careful consideration of fire protection strategies to ensure adequate safety during a fire event.
Examiner: Candidates often provided good responses in relation to the way that wood chars and the
use of sacrificial timber. Few referenced the fact that the floor would be ultimately be
consumed by fire.
Explain the purpose of compartmentation and give two examples of places within a building
where this would be found. (4 marks)
KP:
### Purpose of Compartmentation
Compartmentation is a fire protection strategy designed to limit the spread of fire and smoke within a building. The main objectives include:
- Enhancing Safety: Compartmentation creates barriers that contain fires to specific areas, allowing occupants more time to evacuate safely and minimizing the risk of smoke inhalation and exposure to flames.
- Protecting Property: By confining fires to designated compartments, the extent of fire damage can be reduced, preserving property and allowing for more effective firefighting efforts.
Examples of Places Within a Building
-
Stairwells:
- Stairwells are often enclosed with fire-resisting walls and doors to protect escape routes. This compartmentation ensures that smoke and flames do not spread into the stairwell, providing a safe passage for occupants to evacuate and for emergency services to enter.
-
Service Areas:
- Areas such as electrical rooms, mechanical rooms, and storage spaces for flammable materials are typically designed as fire compartments. These spaces are often equipped with fire-rated doors and walls to prevent fire from spreading to other parts of the building, protecting critical infrastructure and minimizing risks associated with hazardous materials.
In summary, compartmentation is vital for enhancing safety and protecting property in a building, and it is commonly implemented in areas such as stairwells and service rooms.
Examiner: This question was usually answered well as compartmentation appears to be well
understood. However, some candidates failed to provide two examples as required by the
question and lost the opportunity to achieve the marks available for this
There are three different types of glazing. One type is “integrity only fire glazing, E”. Name
and briefly describe the other two types. (6 marks)
E. designed to resist the passage of fire and smoke from the compartment of origin for the specified period of fire resistance
EW. Provides integrity to the same extent as E but has additional, limited resistance to heat transfer to below 15kW/m2 on the unexposed side. Not currently recognised in the UK, but used elsewhere in Europe and the wider world to protect means of escape for a limited period of time in order to protect those evacuating a building.
EI. Provides integrity as per E but also full insulation to prevent heat transfer to the non fire side, such that the average temperature increase is limited to an average rise above ambient of 140degC or a maximum of 180degC
Examiner: This question was usually answered well although candidates often failed to expand their
responses sufficiently to secure all of the marks available.
a) Explain the purpose and use of cavity barriers. (3 marks)
b) Describe the difference in use and construction between small cavity barriers and large
cavity barriers. (5 marks)
a) Explain the purpose and use of cavity barriers. (3 marks)
Cavity barriers are defined as a construction, other than a smoke curtain, designed to close a
concealed space, such as that in a cavity wall or ceiling void, against penetration of smoke or flame,
or provided to restrict the movement of smoke or flame within such a space.
Cavity barriers require special attention from the designer. By their very nature, they are usually
hidden once installed and are therefore difficult to inspect after installation, handover and
subsequently through the life of the building. However, the barrier will not become effective until it
has been covered up and post-installation inspection could affect the usefulness of the cavity barrier
by opening the works
Cavity barriers come in three different forms, small cavity barriers, large cavity barriers and open state cavity barriers. There purpose is to close a concealed space in the event of a fire, this could be anything from the cavity wall or a ceiling void. When closed they will prevent the spread of smoke or flames. Cavity barriers are only usually required to have thirty minutes’ integrity and fifteen minutes’ insulation. Open state cavity barriers are usually installed between elements of a building, for example rain screen cladding, where the cavity barrier is open in the cold state to allow for the free movement of air for ventilation. In a fire situation, the cavity barrier closes preventing the spread of fire.
b) Describe the difference in use and construction between small cavity barriers and large cavity barriers. (5 marks)
Cavity barriers can be divided into two types: ‘small’ cavity barriers e.g. those used within the leaves of a masonry wall and ‘large’ cavity barriers which can be several metres high/wide which are used to divide large enclosed spaces e.g. in under floor voids and within roof spaces. Small cavity barriers are usually made from stone wool slabs and strips or preformed elastomeric seals. Large cavity barriers are usually made from either non-combustible fabric such as glass or ceramic cloths or are fabricated e.g. from stone wool curtains.
Cavity barriers are used: around window frames, within cavity walls (masonry and in timber frame constructions) in floor voids e.g. below raised floors, and in ceiling spaces and roof voids. Particular care is required in the installation of some types of cavity barriers e.g. those within cavity walls because they will become inaccessible after installation and so cannot be inspected or maintained.
Examiner: This question was often answered well although some candidates appeared to have limited
understanding of the use of small cavity barriers.
In relation to fire-stopping and sealing systems:
a) describe the composition and use of mortars. (4 marks)
b) state two examples of places where mortars would be used. (2 marks)
In relation to fire-stopping and sealing systems: a) describe the composition and use of mortars. (4 marks)
Gypsum or cementitious based powder blended with inorganic lightweight fillers, composite reinforcement and chemical modifiers. The compounds are mixed with water and placed around and between penetrating services giving a rigid seal with some products providing a loadbearing seal. It is always important to get the right mix of water and compound particularly for load bearing seals.
The systems can be used to fire-stop penetrations through concrete and masonry compartment wall and floor constructions although some can be used in conjunction with lightweight partitions or timber floors. In certain circumstances, a supporting structure will be required so reference to manufacturers’ instructions is important.
b) state two examples of places where mortars would be used. (2 marks)
Loadbearing seal typically used in a service riser.
Service penetrations through a masonry or concrete wall.
KP:
### a) Composition and Use of Mortars
Composition:
Fire-stopping mortars are typically composed of a mixture of the following materials:
- Cement: Acts as the primary binder, providing strength and durability.
- Aggregates: Fine and coarse aggregates are included to enhance the mortar’s structure and stability.
- Fire-Retardant Additives: These may include materials such as vermiculite or perlite, which improve fire resistance by creating insulating barriers that slow heat transfer.
- Fibers: Some formulations may include synthetic or natural fibers to enhance the mortar’s tensile strength and resistance to cracking.
Use:
Fire-stopping mortars are used to seal penetrations and joints in fire-rated walls and floors, ensuring that fire and smoke cannot spread through these openings. They provide passive fire protection by maintaining the integrity of fire-resistance-rated assemblies. Mortars are applied in areas where services like electrical conduits, plumbing pipes, and ductwork penetrate fire barriers.
b) Examples of Places Where Mortars Would Be Used
-
Wall Penetrations:
- Mortars are commonly used to seal around pipes, cables, and ducts that penetrate fire-rated walls, ensuring that the fire-resistance integrity of the wall is maintained.
-
Floor Openings:
- Fire-stopping mortars are also used to seal gaps around penetrations in fire-resistance-rated floors, such as those for HVAC systems or plumbing, preventing the passage of smoke and fire between floors.
These applications help maintain the overall fire safety of buildings by effectively managing the risks associated with penetrations in fire-rated assemblies.
Examiner: Part a) was often answered well with most candidates able to explain the composition of
mortars and most familiar with examples of its use.
State two methods for providing fire resistance to a steel duct and give one example of each.
(4 mark
KP:
Here are two methods for providing fire resistance to a steel duct, along with examples for each:
-
Insulating Coatings
- Method: Applying fire-resistant insulating coatings to the exterior of the duct. These coatings can be intumescent or cementitious, expanding when exposed to heat to form a protective char layer.
- Example: Intumescent paint applied to a steel duct in a commercial kitchen to protect it during a fire and to maintain the duct’s fire resistance rating.
-
Fire-Resistant Duct Wraps
- Method: Using fire-resistant wraps or blankets made from mineral fiber or other fire-resistant materials to encase the duct.
- Example: A mineral wool fire wrap used around a steel duct in a high-rise building, providing thermal insulation and preventing the spread of fire and smoke between floors.
These methods effectively enhance the fire resistance of steel ducts, ensuring compliance with fire safety regulations and protecting occupants in the event of a fire.
Examiner: Most candidates were able to gain marks for this question.
The two methods were coatings (with a mark available for an example such as intumescent,
ablative or cementitious) and boards (with a mark available for an example such as mineral
wool (Rockwool), Calcium Silicate or Metal composite (Durasteel)).
Some candidates confused ducts with dampers and provided responses with a focus on
dampers
Explain the purpose and operation of a smoke control damper. (6 marks
- Check they are in good condition
- Full length and secure in the groove
- If seals are badly finished, damaged or painted over then they must be replaced with exactly the same size and intumescent material that was originally specified
- If the smoke seals have been replaced, they should be fitted in one continuous length if possible
Check manufacturers instructions.
Check that there are no gaps around ironmongery
Ensure the perimeter gaps are less than 3mm
Don’t use more than one product on the same door as they will react differently.
KP:
### Purpose and Operation of a Smoke Control Damper
Purpose:
1. Smoke Containment:
- The primary purpose of a smoke control damper is to contain and manage smoke movement within a building during a fire event. By restricting smoke from traveling into occupied spaces, it helps to protect occupants and maintain safe evacuation routes.
-
Protection of Escape Routes:
- Smoke control dampers are crucial for ensuring that escape routes, such as stairwells and corridors, remain clear of smoke. This allows for safe and effective evacuation of occupants during an emergency.
-
Facilitation of Smoke Management Systems:
- These dampers work in conjunction with smoke management systems to direct smoke to designated smoke extraction points. This enhances the overall effectiveness of the fire protection strategy in the building.
Operation:
1. Automatic Activation:
- Smoke control dampers are typically equipped with automatic activation mechanisms that respond to smoke detection systems. When smoke is detected, the damper automatically closes to prevent the spread of smoke into adjacent areas.
-
Manual Control:
- In some systems, dampers can be manually controlled via a fire alarm system or other building management controls, allowing for flexibility in smoke management based on specific situations.
-
Positioning and Orientation:
- The dampers are strategically installed in ductwork or within walls at key locations to intercept and manage smoke flow effectively. They can be oriented vertically or horizontally depending on the design of the ventilation system.
-
Sealing Mechanisms:
- Upon activation, the damper’s blades close tightly to create a seal, preventing smoke from passing through. High-quality seals are critical for ensuring that smoke does not leak around the edges of the damper.
-
Testing and Maintenance:
- Regular testing and maintenance are essential to ensure that smoke control dampers operate correctly when needed. This includes checking for obstructions, ensuring proper operation of automatic controls, and maintaining the integrity of seals.
In summary, smoke control dampers play a vital role in fire safety by containing smoke, protecting escape routes, and facilitating smoke management systems. Their effective operation is crucial for occupant safety and effective emergency response during a fire.
Examiner:Most candidates appeared to be familiar with this type of damper and were able to score
marks. As with previous responses, the lack of detail provided in responses meant that
some candidates failed to capitalise on the marks available.
Describe the purpose and operation of automatic door hold-open/release devices for selfclosing fire doors. (6 marks)
KP:
### Purpose and Operation of Automatic Door Hold-Open/Release Devices for Self-Closing Fire Doors
Purpose:
1. Facilitate Accessibility:
- Automatic hold-open devices allow fire doors to remain open during normal operations, improving accessibility and convenience in high-traffic areas. This encourages the free movement of people without the need to manually hold doors open.
-
Ensure Fire Safety:
- The devices are designed to automatically release the door and allow it to close during a fire alarm or smoke detection event, thereby ensuring the fire door fulfills its primary role in preventing the spread of smoke and fire between compartments.
-
Maintain Compliance:
- These devices help buildings comply with fire safety regulations that require self-closing doors to effectively compartmentalize areas, thus enhancing the overall safety of the building occupants.
Operation:
1. Normal Operating Mode:
- Under normal conditions, the automatic hold-open device keeps the fire door in an open position. This is often achieved using a magnet or an electromagnetic hold-open mechanism that holds the door against the frame.
-
Detection and Activation:
- The device is connected to the building’s fire alarm system or smoke detectors. When a fire is detected, the system triggers the hold-open device to release, allowing the door to close automatically.
-
Closing Mechanism:
- Once released, the door’s self-closing mechanism (such as a hydraulic or pneumatic closer) ensures that the door closes securely and seals the opening to prevent smoke and flames from spreading.
-
Manual Override:
- Many automatic hold-open/release devices include a manual override feature that allows staff to close the door manually if needed, providing flexibility in controlling access during non-emergency situations.
-
Testing and Maintenance:
- Regular testing and maintenance are crucial to ensure that the hold-open/release devices function correctly. This includes checking the connections to the fire alarm system and ensuring that the door closes properly when activated.
In summary, automatic door hold-open/release devices for self-closing fire doors serve to improve accessibility while ensuring fire safety by automatically closing the door in the event of a fire. Their reliable operation is essential for maintaining the effectiveness of fire doors in protecting occupants and property.
Examiner: This question was usually answered well with many candidates scoring five or six of the
marks available. A few candidates stated that door open/release devices are operated by a
fusible link.
State the checks that you would carry out when completing the installation of fire and smoke
seals on fire doors. (6 marks
KP:
When completing the installation of fire and smoke seals on fire doors, the following checks should be carried out:
-
Correct Seal Type:
- Verify that the appropriate type of fire and smoke seal has been used for the specific fire door and its intended fire rating. Ensure it meets relevant standards and certifications.
-
Seal Placement:
- Check that seals are installed in the correct locations according to the manufacturer’s instructions. This typically includes the perimeter of the door leaf and any vertical or horizontal meeting edges.
-
Integrity of Seals:
- Inspect the seals for any damage, such as tears or wear, that could compromise their effectiveness. Ensure that they are intact and properly adhered to the door and frame.
-
Operational Functionality:
- Test the door’s self-closing mechanism to ensure it closes fully against the seals without obstruction. The door should not remain ajar, as this would reduce the effectiveness of the seals.
-
Clearance Measurement:
- Measure the gap between the door and the frame to ensure it meets the allowable limits specified in fire safety regulations. Gaps should not exceed the recommended size to maintain the performance of the seals.
-
Smoke Seal Functionality:
- If applicable, test the functionality of smoke seals to ensure they effectively block the passage of smoke when the door is closed. This may involve checking for proper alignment and compression against the frame.
These checks help ensure that fire and smoke seals are installed correctly and function effectively, contributing to the overall fire safety of the building.
Examiner: There were some excellent responses to this question. However, some candidates failed to
focus on fire and smoke seals as required by the question and others failed to start from the
point that the checks were at the completion stage and were about ensuring that the fitting
was correct and safe
