Exam Questions

Question 1

What is the difference between flagship, indicator and umbrella species?

Answer 1

• Flagship species are charismatic and iconic species that are used to attract public attention and support for conservation efforts.
• Indicator species are selected based on their sensitivity to environmental changes and are used as indicators to assess the health of ecosystems.
• Umbrella species, are species whose conservation indirectly benefits a wide range of other species and habitats, making them valuable for protecting biodiversity at a larger scale.

Question 2

Keystone species

Answer 2

A species that, if taken out of a food web, has major impacts (disproportionally larger than other species) on the food web structure, often leading to a collapse in food chains and total change in habitat.
-> often provide habitat for many other species. E.g. camelthorn acacia

Question 3

Flagship species

Answer 3

“Mascot” species used in media to sell nature conservation managements. Not necessarily the most endangered species. Often cute and fluffy. E.g. red panda -> “Bambi- Effekt”

Question 4

Target species

Answer 4

Mostly endangered species, used to evaluate criteria with regard to objectives of nature conservation
The status and trends of the target species can serve as indicators of the overall health and effectiveness of conservation actions.

Question 5

Leading species

Answer 5

Species that survive in a very specific ecological space, have indicator function with strong spatial reference. E.g. Corn Bunting, Beaver

Question 6

Umbrella species

Answer 6

Species of large continuous, relatively natural habitat. Conservation of that species will protect a lot of other species too. E.g. Spotted Owl, Wale, Sibirien Tiger

Question 7

Ecosystem engineers

Answer 7

Organisms that cause changes in the state of biotic and abiotic variables through non-trophic processes, thereby altering the availability of resources for other species. They create habitats, e.g elephants, beavers, coastal bird, beaver, mole

Question 8

Name 3 important International nature conservation initiatives and their goals

Answer 8

ICRW: International Convention on the Regulation of Whaling

Ramsar Konvention: protection of wetlands

IUCN: central organ of governmental and non-governmental members, create Red Lists and consult

Bonner Convention: conservation of migratory and wild living species

CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity, protection of biodiversity

Natura 2000: EU, protection of migratory bird species, network of core breeding and resting sites for rare and threatened species and habitats

IPBES: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, evaluates biodiversity and ecosystem services and does political consultation

Question 9

Indicator species

Answer 9

Species that indicate habitat health or certain ecosystem processes. E.g. spotted owl

strong spatial reference

Question 10

Which of the following animal groups is most endangered? Mammals, breeding birds, reptiles, amphibians, sweet water fish

Answer 10

Reptiles

Question 11

Which are the major reasons for biodiversity decline (in order)?

Answer 11

Land use (also fragmentation)

Climate change (rising temperatures)

Nitrogen deposition

Biotic exchange (Invasive species)

Rising CO2 levels

Question 12

Name two examples for environmental and demographic noise. With wich population size does demographic noise become more important?

Answer 12

Environmental noise: weather (temp, rainfall), catastrophes (floods, illnesses)

Demographic noise: stochastic fluctuations in the sex ratio, of birth and death rates

With small populations sizes the demographic noise becomes more important

Question 13

What is inbreeding depression? What is outbreeding depression? When is it important?

Answer 13

A) Reduced fitness of descendants of genetically similar individuals (through the expression of recessive allele), important since individuals of small populations are often genetically similar

B) Reduced fitness of descendants of genetically very different individuals (incompatibility of genomes, loss of local adaptation), important with reintroduction or when small populations are being flooded by big populations of closely related species

Question 14

Genetic drift

Answer 14

the change in frequency of an existing gene variant in the population due to random chance

Accidental extinction of alleles, random process that leads to a change in genetic diversity

Question 15

Exercise: You have identified a threatened population that you want to protect. As a first step, you have a population vulnerability analysis PVA carried out. You get the following statement: the mean life span Tm of the population is 60 years. (i) How do you interpret this result? (ii) Estimate the extinction risk after 20 years (Attention: the extinction risk is not small!).(iii) Sketch (e.g. using several graphs) how the value for Tm results from several possible population trajectories (e.g. computer simulations).

Answer 15

not useful for future predictions, can be used as a relative measure, for example as a tool to choose between different management strategies

use complicated equation: 28%

graph with many trajectories, results in left skewed graph, Tm in middle

Question 16

(i) On which factors does the success of the reintroduction of a species mainly depend? List 5 points. (ii) What percentage (approximate figure will suffice) of reintroductions to date have been successful?

Answer 16

1. initial population size (MVP),
2. reasons for initial extinction,
3. adequate ecological knowledge of the species (PVA),
4. genetic composition/diversity, l
5. ong-term support and financing,
6. successful public relations

ca. 1/3, 27%

Question 17

(i) What are the tasks/goals of a national park? (i) What requirements must the corresponding areas have with regard to their protection status? (iii) Name a national park in the federal state of Brandenburg.

Answer 17

National parks serve the large-scale protection of areas of special character. Tasks: safeguarding large-scale natural and near-natural areas and large-scale ecological processes (process protection), safeguarding the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems, promoting opportunities for experiencing nature, research, recreation and leisure.

These areas must fulfil the requirements of a nature reserve in a predominant part.

Nationalpark Unteres Obertal

Question 18

Sketch the typical course of the number of species S as a function of the size of the study area A in double logarithmic order (with axis labelling). What is the corresponding mathematical equation?

Answer 18

S = c * A^z

Log (S) = log(c) + z * log(A)

Question 19

Name 4 criteria of metapopulations

Answer 19

Discrete sub-populations

High local extinction risk

Recolonisation is possible

No synchronisation of local dynamics

genetically connected

Question 20

There are several remnant forest islands of different sizes at different distances from a large forest area. Sketch in the graph below (with axis labelling!) how, according to the equilibrium theory of island biogeography, the number of species on the remnant forest islands depends on the extinction and colonisation rate or on the remnant forest size and the distance to the large forest area.

Answer 20

…
According to the equilibrium theory of island biogeography, the number of species on remnant forest islands is influenced by two main factors: island size and isolation (distance from the large forest area). The theory suggests that there is an equilibrium point where the rates of species colonization and extinction balance out, resulting in a relatively stable number of species on the island.
Graph 1:
X-axis: Distance from large forest area
Y-axis: Number of species on the remnant forest islands

Graph 2: X-axis: Island size
Y-axis: Number of species on the remnant forest islands

Question 21

Which empirical methods can be usefully employed to verify the functioning of corridors? Give 4 examples!

Answer 21

Mark, recapture

Telemetry

Direction sensitive capture traps

Genetic differences

Translocation studies

Question 22

What are the most important negative consequences of transverse structures and dams in watercourses from a nature conservation perspective? Name 4 important consequences!

Answer 22

Loss of connectivity, longitudinal and lateral

Changed water temperature and quality

Changed sediment transport

Changed hydrologic regime

Question 23

Name 3 typical phenological consequences of climate change.

Answer 23

earlier budding, flowering

longer growing seasons

earlier migration and egg laying/hatching

earlier colour change in autumn

Phenology: study of periodic events in biological life cycles and how these are influenced by seasonal and interannual variations in climate, as well as habitat factors

Question 24

The term “dry grassland” covers a wide range of different plant communities in Brandenburg. However, there are also a number of common features. a) At which sites do dry grasslands become established in our region? What environmental conditions do these sites have? b) What adaptation strategies do typical dry grassland plants have to the site conditions?

Answer 24

dry, nutrient-poor (N and P) sites with low productivity that are/were used by humans. these can mainly be slopes and knolls or secondary sites such as military training areas, former fields or sandy raw soils in open-cast lakes.

dry grasslands are stress and disturbance tolerant. they exhibit a conservative growth strategy characterised by the following features: - xenomorphic adaptations (reduction of leaf area, epidermis hairs) - slow growth - relatively low height - high investment in root growth - high age

slopes and knolls: Hänge und Hügel

Question 25

What effects can rising temperatures have on the interactions between individuals, which can ultimately change the composition of the species community? Give 2 examples!

Answer 25

Changes in food competition due to changes in foraging rates and feeding times (temporal niches)

Change in predator-prey interaction: warming increases mobility and activity (especially ectotherms) - Attack rates increase with increasing temperature - Shortening of handling time - Effect on intake/digestion rates and per-head interaction strengths

Question 26

Effects of nitrogen fertilisation on plant communities in two different grassland types. You record the number of species and the above-ground biomass. You calculate the mean values of the Ellenberg indicator values for nutrients (N) and reaction (acid/base content) for the plant communities. In both grassland types, the number of species decreases. In grassland type A, the above-ground biomass and the mean Ellenberg indicator value for nutrients increase. In grassland type B, the Ellenberg indicator value for reaction decreases without the Ellenberg indicator value for nutrients or aboveground biomass changing. Interpret the results.

Answer 26

A- The growth increases (biomass), species decreases. Meaning we expect high Ellenberg value for nitrogen. The roots have taken the N available in the soil.

B- The reaction value decreasing means, acidic soil which can be interpret as acidification of soil by N before it gets taken by the roots. (Leaching of cations)

Question 27

What are the Red Lists in conservation?

Answer 27

Red lists are a globally recognised way of identifying the threat of extinction to species, using the internationally accepted Red List guidelines developed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

Question 28

The top three reasons for being on the red list

Answer 28

how categories are determined by:

size and decrease in the individual pop
size and decline of in area
pop threat analysis/ pop viability analysis

Question 29

Classification of the red list (0-5)?

Answer 29

• least concern
• near- threatened
• vulnerable
• endangered
• critically endangered
• extinct in the wild
• extinct

Question 30

What is the tie between wind power and nature conservation?

Answer 30

wind turbines cause many bird fatalities; bird nests are not allowed near wind turbines and then the bird nests that are near and prevent people from being able to get a wind turbine on their land will mysteriously disappear because the wind turbines bring in more money for farmers/ landowners than the birds do.

Question 31

Explanation of the vortex of extinction + explanation using an example

Answer 31

occurs in small pops through positive feedback between several factors that have a negative impact on pop size
factors: demographic variation, subdivision by fragmentation, inbreeding, genetic drift & less ability to adapt
inbreeding for plants: can cause loss of germination + seeds
externally influenced by environmental noise + catastrophe & habitat destruction, degradation, fragmentation, overuse (land), exotic species
E.g.: orangutan: forest fragmentation, reduced pop size, increase vulnerability to environmental fluctuations, inbreeding depression, disruption of social structure (lack of ability to find mates, etc.) —> lack of genetic diversity (in the extinction vortex)

downward spiral of population decline and increasing risk of extinction for small and isolated populations

Question 32

What is Allee Effect and how can it occur?

Answer 32

correlation between pop size and mean individual fitness (effect of genetic diversity is more extreme in smaller pops)
difficulties in partner search; unfavorable microclimates; patchy plant pops; inefficient hunting in small groups

e.g.: island grey fox in Santa Cruz, pop fell from 450 to 15 in 5 years (1994-1999)
colonization of American Golden Eagle caused this drastic pop decline
golden eagle caused Allee effect and inbreeding depression, reduced mating success

Question 33

Explain island biogeography - draw a diagram to show how it works.

Answer 33

island biogeography:
The number of species on an island is determined by a dynamic equilibrium between extinction rates and colonization rates
Population sizes are positively correlated with island area
Extinction rates (x) are roughly inversely correlated (-) with population sizes (y)
⇒ smaller islands have higher extinction rates
Colonization rates are inversely proportional to the distance from the mainland
⇒ As distance from the mainland increases, the colonization rate decreases
Assumptions of the IB:
1) Extinction depends only on the island size (and the number of existing species)
2) Immigration depends only on isolation (and the number of existing species)

Question 34

How does the graph change when considering target effect?

Answer 34

target-area effect = Contrary to the assumption of the ETIB, immigration rates are usually not independent of the island size
how the graph changes: Extinction rate is related to the size of the island, but the equilibrium is reached at much smaller species #s than predicted by ETIB because immigration will not happen at the same rate for small and large islands. There is less immigration to small islands and a higher rate of immigration to larger islands.

Question 35

How does the graph change when considering the rescue effect?

Answer 35

rescue effect: explains how the migration of individuals can increase the persistence of small isolated populations by helping to stabilize a metapopulation, thus reducing the chances of extinction. OR, more simply put, Immigrants increase the local population size and thus reduce the local risk of extinction
how the graph changes: Actually, small territories hold less species overall. Is doesn’t matter how near or far the habitat island is, if it’s smaller, it will hold less species (therefore have a lower turnover rate) - this equilibrium between extinction and immigration is reached at smaller species number

Question 36

Give an example for Metapopulation

Answer 36

Metapopulations: populations of the same species; divided subpopulations where movement of the individuals between these subpopulations is frequent.
divergent evolution - the development of two indiv idual species

example?

Question 37

What are the criteria for true Metapopulations?

Answer 37

1) Habitat forms discrete patches in which populations can reproduce locally
Plants have a wider dispersal range than say, zb, herbivorous insects
2) All populations have measurable extinction risks (possible exception: +/-‘immortal mainland’).
Many plant species form long-lived soil seed banks
3) After local extinction, patches can be re-colonized.
Some plant species have too low dispersal potential
4) Local population dynamics are not fully synchronized. (Hanski 1997)
Many plant species tend to form ‘regional ensembles’ or extensive pops
For these plant species, local processes are more important than regional ones

Question 38

Explain the Sink-Source principle

Answer 38

sink population gets fed by source population

Isolated sink populations become extinct over time (no rescue effect conservation)

Question 39

Name 3 risks of corridors.

Answer 39

• risk of invasive species (flux of neophytes and neozoa - having negative influences on other pops)
• disease
• fire
• outbreeding (genetically fit individuals leave the metapopulation, so the population becomes more vulnerable)

corridors are species specific, so one corridor that is great for one species can be risky/ dangerous for others

Question 40

Name 3 advantages of corridors.

Answer 40

• promote immigration into a habitat
  => (1) maintain or increase biodiversity,
  => (2) reduce the probability of extinction of small populations („rescue effect“),
  => (3) ensure the maintenance of metapopulations (by enabling the recolonization of habitats) and
  => (4) prevent inbreeding and ensure the preservation of genetic diversity
• exchange between two habitats connected by a corridor is on average 50% higher than in the absence of a corridor

Question 41

Name 3 disadvantages of corridors.

Answer 41

• negative effects of increased immigration (to core patches): Synchronisation of local dynamics, facilitated spread of diseases & other antagonists: Risk of outbreeding depression
• Danger of ‘bleeding out’ of populations (due to increased dispersal mortality, migration into sink habitats)
• Possibly facilitated spread of abiotic disturbances(e.g. fire)
• Corridors are species-specific (“what is a corridor for one species is a barrier for another “)
• Easier spreading of neophytes and neozoa

Question 42

Which species should be protected? What’s the difference between leading species and target species?

Answer 42

• Leading species: species highly associated with a certain kind of habitat or an ecological spatial unit (species chosen to check the impact of your conservation methods across similar ecological spaces or habitats) –> Indicator function with strong spatial reference zb: black grouse needs many habitats - checks conservation changes for similar ecological species/ a habitat
• target species: are used to concretize and verify given objectives. Population development of a target species in a region provides evaluation criteria regarding objectives, e.g. tolerability of landscape change from an ecological point of view, or evaluation of compensation measures. (species chosen to check the impact of your conservation methods on that target species) ((usually endangered species))
• (c) difficult to chose this species

Question 43

Name the 5 main causes for the global change of biodiversity and their relative effects (1 strongest, 5 weakest effect)

Answer 43

• land use (fragmentation, degradation)
• Climate change
• N decomposition
• Invasive species
• increase in CO2 concentration

Question 44

Tell at least one example for environmental and demographic noise.

Answer 44

• environmental noise: weather, temp., precipitation, catastrophe (flooding + diseases), natural disasters
• demographic noise: birth + death events

Question 45

Call and explain 4 concepts for setting priorities in conservation. Use at least one example.

Answer 45

• Phylogenetic extraordinary species, (unique species) zb: kiwi, komodo dragon
• Keystone species: species whose impact on an ecosystem is disproportionately large to it’s pop # (zb: wolf, changed the flows of the rivers in Yellowstone park (top predators are often keystone species), zb: sea otters eating kelp)
• (C) not all ecosystems have these species, it is not considerate of species interactions, over consideration of a species
• Ecosystem engineers zb: beaver
  (c) has no spatials cale (local or region?)
• Flagship species: charismatic megafauna, cute ones (zb: panda, grizzly bear, kiwi)
  (c) ignorant of rest of ecosystem; sell protection
  Indicator species: highly specialized species in association with their habitat - can indicate state of overall system
  Example: river pearl mussel, canaries in mining, lichens, spotted owl in the USA is indicator of primeval forests
  (c) few of them, difficult to find/ determine within an ecosystem
• Umbrella species: literally a species chosen because the conservation of this species indirectly affects and protects many other species or entire systems
  Example: spotted owl in North America - to protect primeval (old) forests
• Often flagship and indicator species act as umbrella species
  Siberian tiger - deciduous and coniferous forests
  Large territory
  usually need contiguous (connected through an unbroken sequence, continuous) blocks of relatively natural or undisturbed habitat to form viable populations
• (c) difficult to determine/ understand the importance of an influence one creature has on all of the other creatures it interacts with

Whale: protects fish
Leading species and target species
driver/ passenger species
Endangered species!
- Leading species: species highly associated with a certain kind of habitat or a ecological spatial unit (species chosen to check the impact of your conservation methods across similar ecological spaces or a habitat) zb: black grouse needs many habitats
- target species: Population development of a target species in a region provides evaluation criteria regarding objectives, e.g. tolerability of landscape change from an ecological point of view, or evaluation of compensation measures (species chosen to check the impact of your conservation methods on that target species) ((usually endangered species))
(c) difficult to chose this species
- Criticisms?: ( C ) ** above
No priority of a nature conservation approach can ever be all inclusive

Question 46

3 international conservation initiatives and their goals:

Answer 46

• IUCN - Protection of genetic diversity and wildlife species
• IWC - international whaling commission - management and protection of all great whale stocks in the entire ocean
• RIO: biodiversity
• IPBES: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services; have scientists from around the world and address+report about biodiv and ecosystem services

Question 47

What are the most endangered plants?
What are the most endangered animals?
What are the most threatened?

Answer 47

• cycads
• amphibians
• fishes

Question 48

5 factors of success reintroducing a species:

Give one positive and one negative example.

Answer 48

• Number of individuals
• Causes of original extinction must be eliminated
• Sufficient knowledge of the ecology of the species (PVA)
• Genetic composition
• Long-term expert support and financing
• Successful public relations work
  a. negative example: unsuccessful reintroduction of lynx in Austria
  b. positive example: lynx in Harz

Question 49

Name 4 negative effects of transverse structures.

Answer 49

loss of connectivity, change the sediment transport, alter water temp and quality, hydrological regime changes (desynchronization of environmental and life cycle strategies, changes in river habitats) → cause damage/ death rate of 20% to migrating eels

Question 50

Why is the initial population important for Tm and P(0)t ?

Answer 50

?