Exam Questions Flashcards
Describe the process of synaptic transmission (3 marks)
An electrical impulse travels along the pre-synaptic neurone
The action potential reaches the axon terminal
From the terminal button, a neurotransmitter like dopamine diffuses from the pre-synaptic neurone to the post-synaptic neurone across the synapse where it attaches to the receptors on the dendrite.
The impulse reaches the synaptic vesicles
Tina begins taking recreational drugs as she feels stressed due to her forthcoming
examinations.
Explain the effects the recreational drugs may have on the transmission process in
Tina’s central nervous system.
You must refer to the context in your response.
(3 marks)
Tina could consume drugs which will affect her synaptic functioning by increasing or decreasing neurotransmitters which will impact on her level of stress (1).
Alcohol would increase serotonin to make Tina feel happier about her situation (1).
However, alcohol would also increase GABA
which would make Tina’s memory less efficient and could make her revision for her exams more difficult (1).
Evaluate the use of brain scanning techniques to investigate human behaviour.
(8 marks)
A01
• PET scans investigate brain activity when a human is
doing a task
• PET involves injecting a radioactive tracer into the
participant
• fMRI records brain activity and produces an anatomical
picture of the brain
• CAT scans use multiple X-rays to produce a cross-sectional image of brain regions
AO3
• Brain scanning lacks ecological validity as it takes place
in an artificial setting
• Frequent exposure to radiation could mean brain
scanning could be unethical
• Raine et al. (1997) found differences in murderer brain
activity using PET scans showing their contribution
• Brain scans can be repeated easily to test for reliability in
findings about human behaviour
State the purpose of the PET brain-scanning technique (1 mark)
PET scans measure the activity of the brain
Explain one strength and one weakness of the PET brain-scanning technique (4 marks)
Strength:
PET scans are a valid measurement of brain activity (1) as they
provide a detailed image of brain activity during the completion of
a task (1).
Weakness:
PET scans involve injecting a radioactive glucose tracer into
participants which could be dangerous (1) therefore limiting the
number of times that it can be used with the same participants
(1).
Evaluate the role of the central nervous system (CNS) and neurotransmitters in explaining human behaviour.
(8 marks)
1
- Damage in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex leads to
impairments in behavioural control and decision making.
- Matthies et al. (2012) found higher aggression levels with 16-18%
reduction in amygdala volumes.
- Low serotonin has been linked to aggression, assault, arson,
murder, and child beating.
- Recreational drugs such as heroin stimulate dopamine which is
rewarding and so can lead to repeated use and could progress to
addiction.
AO3
- Raine et al. (1997) found NGRIs had lower activity in prefrontal
regions, supporting research linking damage to the PFC and
aggressive behaviour.
- Allen and Stevens (1994) suggested that hippocampal neuronal
transmission might be unreliable in terms of a postsynaptic
response suggesting human behaviour may have other factors
influencing the communication centres in the brain.
- Research linking neurotransmitters such as serotonin to
aggressive behaviour in humans is correlational so other factors
may contribute to aggression.
- Olds and Milner (1954) found that when stimulating areas of the
dopamine pathway (e.g. septal regions) rats would continue to
press a lever due to the rewarding effects of the stimulation.
Amanda is struggling to control her aggression. Her doctor is considering sending
Amanda for an fMRI scan to find out if her brain may be influencing her aggression.
(A) Explain two reasons for Amanda’s doctor sending her for an fMRI scan. (4 marks)
(B) Name one brain scanning technique other than fMRI. Name one brain scanning technique other than fMRI. (1 mark)
(A) For example:
• Amanda’s doctor may consider that an fMRI scanner can
show good spatial resolution of potential aggressive brain
areas (1) which could then provide a valid identification of
areas of Amanda’s brain that might be involved in her
aggression (1).
• Amanda’s doctor may consider that an fMRI is a non-invasive method of looking at aggression in her brain (1)
which is ethically more acceptable than sending Amanda
for surgery or any other form of invasive treatment (1).
(B) PET scan
Assess whether the role of hormones can explain human behaviour such asaggression (8 marks)
A01
• The body’s endocrine glands secrete hormones such as
cortisol directly into the blood stream targeting key
organs responsible for our fight-or-fight response.
• Testosterone is a male sex hormone that can influence
areas of the brain such as the frontal cortex, amygdala
and hypothalamus associated with aggression.
• Higher levels of the female sex hormones estradiol
(oestradiol) have been associated with lower levels of
aggressive behaviour in children and female offenders.
• Females usually have higher levels of the hormone
oestrogen and lower levels of testosterone, however
changes to female testosterone levels may result in
aggression.
AO3
• Many studies, for example Lidberg et al. (1985) show that
the influence of hormones on the body’s responses is
correlational so we cannot be certain which hormone is
responsible for human aggressive behaviour.
• Maletzky et al. (2006) found that depo-Provera, a drug
that lowers testosterone, is important in explaining
aggressive human behaviour as it showed a reduction in
the levels of sexually aggressive behaviour in some
offenders.
• Social learning theory suggests human aggressive
behaviour is the result of imitating violent role models and
does not consider the role different male and female
hormones.
• Dabbs and Hargrove (1997) found a positive correlation
between the hormone testosterone and the degree of
violent crime in 87 female prisoners, suggesting that the
hormone may be involved in explaining aggressive
behaviour.
Explain two weaknesses of the fMRI scanning technique (4 marks)
- fMRI scanning takes place in an artificial setting which lowers ecological validity (1). This means that participants may not show natural behaviour due to the situation being different to everyday life (1).
- fMRI scanning is not practical for those with pace makers (1) as the magnetic field can cause physical disruption (to the heart) (1)
Assess how far evolution and natural selection can be used to explain aggression (8 marks)
AO1
- Definition of evolution (e.g. evolution is the process of change in all forms of life over generations)
- Genetic link to aggression (e.g. genetic changes lead to differences in observable and unobservable traits such as aggressive behaviour)
- ‘Survival of the fittest’ linked to aggression (e.g.
aggression has been passed on by those who have been successful in reproduction and survival)
- Epigenetic principle applied to aggression (e.g. a
combination between the genotype and environment has led to aggression being observable in the phenotype)
- Aggression as an evolved solution to adaptive problems (e.g. prevention of infidelity, access otherwise inaccessible partners, social status)
AO3
- Supporting research for genetic link to aggression, e.g.
o Chester et al. (2015): Low functioning MAOA
genotype (‘warrior gene’) was linked to greater
aggression
o Mertins et al. (2011): High functioning MAOA
genotype was associated with greater prosocial
behaviour
- Supporting research for aggression as an evolved
solution to adaptive problems, e.g.
o Daly, Wilson, Weghorst (1982): Domestic abuse to
dissuade romantic partners from infidelity;
o Thornhill & Palmer (2000): Hypothesise humans
have evolved adaptations to rape to obtain
otherwise inaccessible partners although evidence
is limited (e.g. Buss, 2003);
o Hill & Hurtado (1996): Aggression leads to
increase in social status in the Yanomamö tribe in
Venezuela
- Alternative theories, e.g.
o Learning theory as an alternative - aggressive
behaviour may be observed and imitated from
same-sex role models;
o Instinct theory as an alternative - aggressive
energy is an instinctive drive that builds up until it
explodes
Harrison and two of his friends were arrested for fighting whilst watching their local football club play against a rival team. During the fight Harrison’s friends cheered him on and encouraged him to fight supporters from the opposing team. Harrison was
arrested by the police and did not see the rest of the football match.
Evaluate how operant conditioning and brain functioning could explain Harrison’s aggressive behaviour.
You must make reference to the context in your answer. (12 marks)
AO1
• Positive reinforcement in operant conditioning strengthens a behaviour by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding.
• Operant conditioning’s punishment involves applying an unpleasant stimulus or removing a potentially pleasant stimulus.
• The prefrontal cortex in the brain relates to emotions, a lack of regulation in the prefrontal cortex could lead to traits like aggression because our emotions are out of control and aggression results.
• The limbic system in the brain is involved in controlling our fight-or-flight response which is an emotional arousal to danger when it occurs.
AO2
• Harrison was verbally praised by those around him for fighting the first time so he continued to fight for a second time.
• Harrison was punished as he was arrested and not allowed to see the rest of the football match.
• Harrison may have had low functioning in his prefrotnal cortex which cased him to act aggressively and fight during and after the football match.
• Harrisons limbic system may not have been working properly on the day of the football match so instead of getting away from the fight – flight; he stayed and fought – fight; which resulted in his arrest.
AO3
• Supporting evidence comes from Skinner (1948) who found in his rat experiments that the consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.
• Skinner and Thorndike’s studies supporting operant conditioning were tested on animals and then applied the findings to humans, but because animals and humans are cognitively different the evidence and findings of these studies are not directly generalisable to humans.
• Phineas Gage in 1848 suffered an unfortunate accident resulting in a change in his character, becoming irresponsible and unreliable which his doctor said was likely to be due to the severing of his prefrontal cortex during the accident.
• Brain functioning as an explanation of aggression does not consider other possibilities like Social Learning Theory which suggests people imitate and copy the aggression you see around you and is not to do with neural brain explanations.
Evaluate operant conditioning as a way of explaining human behaviour (8 marks)
Operant conditioning refers to the process of learning through consequences.
- If people are punished as a consequence for a particular behaviour then they are more likely to stop the behaviour.
- Positive reinforcement results in people being more likely to repeat the behaviour as shown in token economy programmes.
- Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to strengthen behaviour.
AO3
- Skinner’s (1948) animal studies showed that rats would press a lever to receive a reward, so behaviour can be learned through consequences.
- Thorndike (1911) provides support for operant conditioning theory, however kittens were used so they have limited generalisability to humans.
- Mestel and Concar (1994) found a token economy programme to be successful in treating cocaine addicts who were given shopping vouchers as rewards for staying “clean”.
- The influence of hormones on human behaviour suggests that operant conditioning does not fully explain human behaviour.
Max has been learning about evolution and natural selection. He has been asked
by his psychology teacher to prepare a presentation to show how evolution and
natural selection explain human aggressive behaviour. His teacher has suggested
heincludes:
• a reference to gene selection
• a short video
• a reference to inherited traits
• a research study.
Describe what Max could include in his presentation to show how evolution and
natural selection explain human aggressive behaviour (4 marks)
Max could include in his presentation Darwin’s suggestion that only the fittest genes, like those involving aggression, were passed on to aid human survival (1).
Max could then explain that in prehistoric times these
inherited aggressive behavioural traits could be used in hunting, to provide food for others (1). Max could include a short video clip from a popular television programme showing two men fighting for the attention of a woman, which would aid their survival (1). Max could include a research study such as Dobash and Dobash (1979) who found that violence against woman often came about through jealousy, which is an aggressive trait that could lead to gene survival (1).
To what extent do classical conditioning, the process of synaptic transmission and neurotransmitter functioning explain human behaviour?
(12 marks)
AO1
• Classical conditioning assumes that learned phobic
behaviour in humans is by association.
• Natural reflexes are paired with neutral stimuli to create a phobic learned behaviour in classical conditioning.
• Repeated association of the UCS and NS leads to the NS
becoming the CS, causing the CR to increase the
likelihood of a phobic response.
• Neurotransmitters like acetylcholine can influence muscle movement, memory and learning.
• Cocaine is a recreational drug that can stimulate the
central nervous system within the brain’s main reward system affecting dopamine release.
• Genetic predisposition may be one of the influences that affects how sensitive or responsive an individual’s central nervous system is to recreational drugs.
AO3
• Studies like Watson and Rayner (1920) showed that
classical conditioning can alter behaviour in terms of a child’s emotional reactions to various objects like a rat.
• Pavlov’s (1927) study used dogs, which has limited
generalisability to humans suggesting classical
conditioning may not be a representative explanation of human behaviour.
• Gilroy et al. (2003) used systematic desensitisation,
which is based on classical conditioning principles to treat patients who had a spider phobia showing altered behaviour is possible in terms of a treatment.
• Acetylcholine imbalances are known to be caused by low choline, a vitamin B complex-related nutrient found mainly in fatty animal foods, therefore human behaviour differences have other explanations.
• Experimental treatments, such as the TA-CD vaccine, have been trialled to inhibit the pleasurable effects of recreational drugs such as cocaine so could be used as a form of treatment for addiction.
• Dawes et al. (2000) suggested that stress is one of the strongest predictors of relapse in drug users, suggesting an interplay of different factors can influence human
behaviour differences.
Jack is two years of age and is learning to use the potty/toilet without the need
for a nappy. His parents are trying to think of ways to encourage Jack to use the
potty/toilet.
(a) Describe how Jack’s parents could use operant conditioning to encourage him
to use the potty/toilet.
Jack’s parents could use positive reinforcement by giving
him a sticker when he uses the potty/toilet, which is a
reward to encourage him to use the potty/toilet again (1).
A sticker would be an example of a secondary reinforcer
or they could give him food, which is a primary reinforcer
(1). Jack’s parents could remove vegetables from his
dinner, which Jack doesn’t like (1). They could shout at
him when he doesn’t use the potty/toilet, which is
punishment to discourage him from using a nappy (1).
