Exam Prep Flashcards
Research conducted by the zoologist Konrad Lorenz showed that newly hatched goslings will follow the first moving figure they see and adopt that as their ‘mother’. The behaviour of the goslings in adopting their maternal figure in this way reflects ___ knowledge?
Innate
REASONING: Note that the notion ‘innate’ represents the nature or genetic side of the nature-nurture controversy.
A researchers wants to established whether a protein-enriched diet will enhanced the maze-running performance of rats. One group of rats is fed a high-protein diet for the duration of the study; the other group of rats receives ordinary rat chow. In this experiment, the diet fed to the two groups of rats is the ____ variable.
Independent
Reasoning: In this experiment the researchers are testing the effect of diet on maze-running. ‘’Maze running’’ is the variable that is being measured (i.e. the dependent variable) and the researcher manipulates the type of food given to the rats to determine the influence of diet on maze running. Therefore, because the diet is varied (two different diets are given) in this experiment, it constitutes the independent variable. Dependent variables are outcome responses, the values of which depend on how one or more independent variables influence or affect the participants in the experiment. Independent variables are aspects of an investigation that is individually manipulated, or carefully regulated, by the experimenter, while the other aspects are held constant.
Which of the following is a statement with which Skinner and his followers would agree?
1) Most behavior is controlled by unconscious forces.
2) The goal of behavior is self-actualisation.
3) Nature is less influential than nurture.
4) Free will is not an illusion because cognitive variables determine behavior.
3) Nature is less influential than nurture.
Reasoning: The behaviourists placed themselves clearly on the nurture side of the nature-nurture continuum and argued that learning and reinforcement rather than biology accounts for the acquisition of all human behavior. This is because behaviourists such as Watson and Skinner proceeded from the assumption that behavior can be shaped by providing suitable positive reinforcement to strengthen desirable behavior and negative reinforcement to extinguish undesirable behaviour. They therefore maintained that the environment plays an essential role in the learning of all kinds of behavior, even language and cognition.
The primary contribution that Hermann Ebbinghaus made in his memory research to contemporary cognitive psychology was his ___.
1) objections to the excessive emphasis placed on ecological validity in memory studies
2) use of research employing large samples of subjects
3) emphasis on a systematic, well-controlled approach to the study of memory
4) development of a theory of top-down memory processing
3) emphasis on a systematic, well-controlled approach to the study of memory
Reasoning: Ebbinghaus is mainly known for conducting systematic research on his own memory processes.
The philosopher Descartes, is known for having been a ___.
1) functionalist who tried to determine how the different functional components of the mind
fit together
2) behaviourist because he formulated the law of effect
3) pragmatist who presented many practical solutions to everyday philosophical issues
4) rationalist because he tried to prove the difference between body and mind by rational analysis
4) rationalist because he tried to prove the difference between body and mind by rational analysis
Reasoning: Descartes is mainly known for his use of reasoning to explore the difference between mind and the body, and to prove that the “I” (of the mind) exists as an independent being. He did not conduct any empirical research on the mind, but relied on rational analysis in support of his dualist position that the mind exists separately from the body.
The concept ecological validity refers to the degree to which —
1) the findings based on a study conducted outside a psychological laboratory will also apply in
the laboratory
2) the findings based on a study conducted in a laboratory will apply outside the lab as well
3) predictions can be made of how participants in a study will react when placed in different situations
4) the effect of situational changes on the behaviour of organisms in a particular environment can be determined
2) the findings based on a study conducted in a laboratory will apply outside the lab as well
Reasoning: The concept ‘ecological validity’ refers to the degree to which research conducted in a laboratory reflects real-life situations as well. For example, in the 1980s cognitive psychologists such as Ulric Nelsser criticized memory research carried out in laboratories on the grounds that it does not educate the operation of the memory system in everyday life. They maintained that the research was not ‘ecologically valid’, and only applied to memory as used in the strictly defined experimental situation used in these studies.
Locke believed that all knowledge is gained empirically, beginning at birth, when our minds are a blank slate, or - - - - -.
1) innate
2) a priori
3) a posteriori
4) tabula rasa
4) tabula rasa
Reasoning: Tabula rasa means ‘blank slate’. As a firm believer in empiricism Locke argued that the human mind has no knowledge at birth and that all knowledge is acquired via the senses.
A psychologist lecturing on the psychology of perception makes the following statement: In perception pattern and organisation are primary. These aspects often emerge directly from the relationship between discrete elements, and they cannot be deduced from a knowledge of the individual elements alone. Indeed, at times elements can be missing or altered yet the overall shape will be perceived directly, showing that overall form is primary. From the statement above we can infer that the psychologist is probably a supporter of:
1) behaviourism
2) Descartes’ rationalism
3) gestalt psychology
4) structuralism
3) gestalt psychology
Reasoning: The key phrases in the quotation are (a) “they (i.e. pattern and organisation) cannot be deduced from knowledge of individual elements alone” and (b) “elements can be missing or altered, yet the overall shape will be perceived directly”. According to the psychologist therefore pattern and organisation cannot be simply inferred from the elements of the perception and something ‘more’ is at stake. As these phrases show, the psychologist adopts the basic assumption at the gestalt psychologists, and Option 3 is therefore correct. Remember that the slogan of the gestalt psychologists is that the percept is not simply “the sum of its part”, but that there is something extra an essential property contained in the whole entity.
During the 1950s, many psychologists were becoming disillusioned with behaviourism, and cognitive psychology began to emerge. A major reason why they were disappointed with behaviourism is because it - - - - -.
1) was a purely empirical approach to psychological research
2) could not throw any light on the internal, cognitive mechanisms underlying human behaviour
3) did not pay sufficient attention to the observation and measurement of behaviour
4) focused too much on social and emotional aspects and not enough on the personal and introspective factors causing behaviour
1) was a purely empirical approach to psychological research
Reasoning: Cognitive psychology emerged mainly in reaction to the extreme assumption of the behaviourists. They argued that only observable aspects should be studied and that the internal mechanisms of mind cannot be explored in a scientific manner. The big problem with the behaviourist methodology is that one is forced to postulate cognitive factors that are not directly observable, in order to explain reasonably complex psychological processes such as language, memory and reasoning.
This major theme of cognitive psychology deals with the factors that determine who we are, and specifically the issue of whether these factors are primarily genetically based, or derive from the environment in which we grew up?
1) Structure versus process
2) Nature versus nurture
3) Biological versus behavioural methods
4) Rationalism versus empiricism
2) Nature versus nurture
Reasoning: The theme referred to in the question is the ‘nature-nurture’ controversy. The issue addressed in the theme is whether the development of cognition is mainly determined by genetic factors or by environmental variables.
In his theory of forms Plato assumes that there is a ‘true reality’ and he accepts that - - - - -.
1) only objects in the physical world are examples of true reality, whereas abstract ideas of objects do not exist
2) true reality consists of both objects in the physical world and abstract ideas of objects
3) true reality does not reside in objects of the physical world, but in abstract ideas that the objects represent
4) there is no way ever to know anything of the nature of true reality
3) true reality does not reside in objects of the physical world, but in abstract ideas that the objects represent
Reasoning: Plato adopted a metaphysical view in terms of which observable reality is only a world of appearances, and he argued that a deeper or ‘true’ reality resides in a world of abstract forms and ideas.
Research conducted by the zoologist Konrad Lorenz showed that newly hatched goslings will follow the first moving figure they see and adopt that as their ‘mother”’. The behaviour of the goslings in adopting their maternal figure in this way reflects - - - - - knowledge.
1) deductive
2) learned
3) rational
4) innate
4) innate
Reasoning: Note that the notion ‘innate’ represents the nature or genetic side of the nature- nurture controversy. Lorenz found that newly hatched graylag geese goslings will adopt the first moving figure that they see as their ‘mother’, even if that figure is from a different species (i.e. a human being rather than a goose). Zoologists argue that this ‘attachment’ behavior (i.e. following the first moving figure as your parent) manifested by goslings is driven by instinct and derives from innate or ‘wired-in’ knowledge. It is therefore genetically programmed ‘nature-based’ behavior.
A researcher wants to establish whether a protein-enriched diet will enhance the maze-running performance of rats. One group of rats is fed a high-protein diet for the duration of the study; the other group of rats receives ordinary rat chow. In this experiment, the diet fed to the two groups of rats is the - - - - - variable.
1) correlated
2) control
3) dependent
4) independent
4) independent
Reasoning: In this experiment, the researchers are testing the effect of diet on maze-running. ‘’Maze running’’ is the variable that is being measured (i.e. the dependent variable) and the researcher manipulates the type of food given to the rats to determine the influence of diet on maze running. Therefore, because the diet is varied (two different diets are given) in this experiment, it constitutes the independent variable. Dependent variables are outcome responses, the values of which depend on how one or more independent variables influence or affect the participants in the experiment. Independent variables are aspects of an investigation that is individually manipulated, or carefully regulated, by the experimenter, while the other aspects are held constant.
Which of the following is a statement with which Skinner and his followers would agree?
1) Most behaviour is controlled by unconscious forces.
2) The goal of behaviour is self-actualisation.
3) Nature is more influential than nurture.
4) Free will is an illusion.
4) Free will is an illusion.
Reasoning: The theory of behaviourism is based on the assumption that all behaviour is fixed by patterns of conditioning. It implies that there is no free will and people are shaped by their environment and by conditioning.
The concept ecological validity refers to the degree to which - - - - -.
1) the findings based on a study conducted outside a psychological laboratory will also apply in the laboratory
2) the findings based on a study conducted in a laboratory will apply outside the lab as well
3) predictions can be made of how participants in a study will react when placed in different situations
4) the effect of situational changes on the behaviour of organisms in a particular environment can be determined
2) the findings based on a study conducted in a laboratory will apply outside the lab as well
Reasoning: The concept ‘ecological validity’ refers to the degree to which research conducted in a laboratory reflects real-life situations as well. For example, in the 1980s cognitive psychologists such as Ulric Nelsser criticized memory research carried out in laboratories on the grounds that it does not educate the operation of the memory system in everyday life. They maintained that the research was not ‘ecologically valid’, and only applied to memory as used in the strictly defined experimental situation used in these studies.
Locke believed that all knowledge is gained empirically, beginning at birth, when our minds are a blank slate, or - - - - -.
1) de dato
2) quae non
3) hic et nunc
4) tabula rasa
4) tabula rasa
Reasoning: Tabula rasa means ‘blank slate’. As a firm believer in empiricism, Locke argued that the human mind has no knowledge at birth and that all knowledge is acquired via the senses.
A psychologist lecturing on the psychology of perception makes the following statement: In perception pattern and organisation are primary. These aspects often emerge directly from the relationship between discrete elements, and they cannot be deduced from a knowledge of the individual elements alone. Indeed, at times elements can be missing or altered yet the overall shape will be perceived directly, showing that overall form is primary. From the statement above we can infer that the psychologist is probably a supporter of:
1) behaviourism
2) Descartes’ rationalism
3) gestalt psychology
4) structuralism
3) gestalt psychology
Reasoning: The key phrases in the quotation are (a) “they (i.e. pattern and organisation) cannot be deduced from knowledge of individual elements alone” and (b) “elements can be missing or altered, yet the overall shape will be perceived directly”. According to the psychologist therefore pattern and organisation cannot be simply inferred from the elements of the perception and something ‘more’ is at stake.
During the 1950s, many psychologists were becoming disillusioned with behaviourism, and cognitive psychology began to emerge. A major reason why they were disappointed with behaviourism is because it - - - - -.
1) was a purely empirical approach to psychological research
2) could not throw any light on the internal, cognitive mechanisms underlying human behaviour
3) did not pay sufficient attention to the observation and measurement of behaviour
4) focused too much on social and emotional aspects and not enough on the personal and introspective factors causing behaviour
1) was a purely empirical approach to psychological research
Reasoning: Cognitive psychology emerged mainly in reaction to the extreme assumption of the behaviourists. They argued that only observable aspects should be studied and that the internal mechanisms of mind cannot be explored in a scientific manner. The big problem with the behaviourist methodology is that one is forced to postulate cognitive factors that are not directly observable, in order to explain reasonably complex psychological processes such as language, memory and reasoning.
This major theme of cognitive psychology deals with the factors that determine who we are, and specifically the issue of whether these factors are primarily genetically based, or derive from the environment in which we grew up?
1) Structure versus process
2) Nature versus nurture
3) Biological versus behavioural methods
4) Rationalism versus empiricism
2) Nature versus nurture
Reasoning: The theme referred to in the question is the ‘nature-nurture’ controversy. The issue addressed in the theme is whether the development of cognition is mainly determined by genetic factors or by environmental variables.
Thabo: You know, as far as I’m concerned, exploring the internal mental processes associated with human cognition is a viable scientific approach. Everybody knows nowadays that we cannot find out much about the real workings of human language, memory and reasoning by just concentrating on overt, explicitly observable behavior.
Based on the statement above it seems that Thabo is favoring the ___.
1) cognitive approach
2) behaviourist paradigm
3) Locke’s theory of human knowledge
4) James Watson’s assumptions about the relevance of mental processes to psychological
research
1) cognitive approach
Reasoning: An empiricist believes that we acquire knowledge via empirical evidence – we obtain evidence through experience and observation. To explore how the human mind works, empiricists would design experiments and conduct studies (science).
Theresa, a judge, places emphasis on reasoning and logic in her decisions. Theresa focuses on
general principles of anticipated behavior, and gives more weight to aspects such as motive and
opportunity than purely observable evidence when delivering a verdict. Theresa is best classified as
___.
1) a rationalist
2) a follower of Locke’s approach
3) an empiricist
4) holding a view of knowledge which is the opposite of that of Descartes
1) a rationalist
Reasoning: A rationalist is someone who believes that the route to knowledge is through logical
analysis.
Erica is conducting experimental research in which she is looking at the effect of type of music on
intellectual development. What is the dependent variable in this example?
1) type of music
2) intellectual development
3) both music and intellectual development
4) neither music nor intellectual development
2) intellectual development
Reasoning: Dependent variables are outcome responses, the values of which depend on how one
or more independent variables influence or affect the participants in the experiment.
Independent variables are aspects of an investigation that is individually manipulated, or carefully
regulated, by the experimenter, while the other aspects are held constant.
Which of the following examples is most analogous to the goal of the structuralist movement in
psychology?
1) Scientists study an entire assembled jigsaw puzzle in order to understand each of the pieces
2) Scientists look at how the pieces of the jigsaw puzzle fit together in order to understand the
assembling process.
3) Scientists look at each piece of jigsaw puzzle in order to understand the whole puzzle as
assembled.
4) Scientists study the different ways a jigsaw puzzle can be assembled to form different
images.
3) Scientists look at each piece of jigsaw puzzle in order to understand the whole puzzle as
assembled.
Reasoning: Structuralism seeks to understand the structure (configuration of elements) of the
mind and its perceptions by analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components.
BF Skinner explained language acquisition in terms of environmental contingencies. The crux of his
argument was that we learn language through reinforcement from our environment. This argument
was severely criticized by Chomsky who maintained that ___.
1) the production of novel sentences in children was not adequately explained by
reinforcement.
2) the cell assemblies in our brain structures are constantly evolving to integrate new
information.
3) machines that pass the Turing test prove that conditioning is not a prerequisite to learning.
4) Learning only takes place when we understand psychological phenomena as an organized
structured whole.
1) the production of novel sentences in children was not adequately explained by
reinforcement.
Reasoning: Chomsky stressed both the biological basis and creative potential of language. Even
young children continually are producing novel sentences for which they could not have been
reinforced in the past.
Which of the following best describes the main idea underlying Gestalt psychology?
1) “The sum of the parts is equal to the whole.”
2) “All is part of the whole.”
3) “The whole is nothing more than separate individual parts.”
4) “The whole differs from the sum of the parts.”
4) “The whole differs from the sum of the parts.”
Reasoning: The maxim “the whole is more than the sum of its parts” aptly sums up the Gestalt
perspective.
Santiago and Ayami disagree on the direction of their research lab. Santiago is simply interested in a
particular phenomenon and wants to study it for knowledge sake. Ayami, however, wants to be able
to take what is learned and use it in practical applications. Their disagreement is an example of ___.
1) nature vs nurture
2) rationalism vs empiricism
3) structure vs processes
4) applied vs basic research
4) applied vs basic research
Reasoning: Applied vs. basic research: We can combine the two kinds of research so that basic
research leads to applied research, which leads to further research, and so on.
A major issue debated by researchers in cognitive psychology is whether one should use carefully
controlled experiments to make causal inferences about human cognitive processes or instead make
use of techniques that would allow one to observe psychological activities such as memory as it
naturally occurs in everyday cognition. This debate is referred to as ___ vs ___.
1) structures; processes
2) validity of causal inferences; ecological validity
3) nature; nurture
4) domain generality; domain specificity
2) validity of causal inferences; ecological validity
Reasoning: We can combine a variety of methods, including laboratory methods and more
naturalistic ones, to converge on findings that hold up, regardless of the methods of study
John Watson, the founder of radical behaviourism, was an American psychologist who ___.
1) rejected all aspects of functionalism.
2) supported the functionalist movement and was one of its most ardent supporters.
3) rejected some aspects of functionalism, but at the same time drew heavily from the
functionalists.
4) Was one of the main developers of the movement that became “behaviourism” in
psychology.
1) rejected all aspects of functionalism.
Reasoning: Functionalists held that the key to understanding the human mind and behavior was
to study the processes of how and why the mind works as it does. Watson, on the other hand, had
no use for internal mental contents (thoughts) or mechanisms. He believed that psychologists
should only concentrate on the study of observable behavior.
There are two radio stations, one receiving signals from the western hemisphere and one receiving
signals from the eastern hemisphere. A cable connects the two stations so that signals sent out from
one half of the world can be transmitted to the other half. The cable is analogous to the brain’s ___.
1) corpus callosum
2) cerebral cortex
3) septum
4) medulla oblongata
1) corpus callosum
Reasoning: The corpus callosum is a dense aggregate of neural fibers connecting the two
hemispheres. It transmits information back and forth.
Select the correct statement about the history of cognition among the options below.
1) The issue of how humans acquire knowledge was not considered until about 100 years ago.
2) The birthday of scientific psychology is usually traced to the first studies of John Watson.
3) The development of the computer played a significant role in the development of cognitive
psychology during the 1950s
4) Behaviourist researchers are particularly famous for the development of influential theories
of human problem solving and decision making.
1) The issue of how humans acquire knowledge was not considered until about 100 years ago.
Reasoning: Functionalists held that the key to understanding the human mind and behavior was
to study the processes of how and why the mind works as it does. Watson, on the other hand, had
no use for internal mental contents (thoughts) or mechanisms. He believed that psychologists
should only concentrate on the study of observable behavior.
Only one of the following students makes a statement with which cognitive psychologists are likely
to agree. The other three statements are all problematic. Identify the correct statement among the
options below.
1) Jeanette: “In everyday cognition, all information is processed at a deep rather than a shallow
level. That is why information is only retained in the short-term memory store for brief
periods of time.”
2) Maria: “Decision making is the primary component of all cognitive processes.”
3) Thabo: “In mainstream cognitive psychology, researchers think of cognition as a flow of
information, and try to understand how information is represented and processed in the
brain.”
4) Alistair: “Cognitive psychologists focus only on manifest, observable behavior when they
study mental processes.”
3) Thabo: “In mainstream cognitive psychology, researchers think of cognition as a flow of
information, and try to understand how information is represented and processed in the
brain.”
Reasoning: In cognitive psychology, empirical data and theories are both important. Theories are
empty without empirical data, and data in cognitive psychology can only be understood in the
context of an explanatory theory.
