Exam One Flashcards
mass communication
any form of communication transmitted via medium while reaching large numbers of people
mass media
channels that carry mass communication
smart mass media
smartphones, start TVs, tablets
research
an attempt to discover something
typical philosophy for research
1) find out what target audience wants
2) give it to them
3) tell them you gave it to them
two main questions in research
1) how to use research methods/statistical procedures?
2) when to use them?
algorithms
generation of statistical procedures (used to investigate research questions/hypotheses
development phases
1) interest?
2) research about users
3) investigation of social, psychological, physical effects
4) research on improvement
four major events that encouraged growth of mass media
1) WWI
2) advertising of 1950s and 60s (persuasion to buy)
3) increase of interest of effects (research on violence and sexual content
4) increased competition for advertising
methods
ways of collecting data
“survival kit”
1) info on consumers changing values
2) shift in demographic pattern
3) developing lifestyle trends
scientific research
organized, objective, controlled, qualitative and quantitative empirical analysis of one/more variables (begins with basic question about scientific phenomenon)
five methods of knowing
1) tenacity
2) intuition
3) authority
4) science
5) self-discovery
tenacity
something is true because is has always been true
intuition
something is true because it’s “self evident”
science
something is true via process of small steps
authority
something is true because of a trusted source
self discovery
something is true because of learning and knowing without intervention
six characteristics of scientific method
1) public (maintaining published reports, replication)
2) objective (letting the chips fall where they may)
3) empirical (knowable and potentially measurable
4) systematic and cumulative (no single research study stands alone, use previous study as building blocks)
5) predictive
6) self-correcting
constitutive definition
defines word by subbing other concepts for it
operational definition
specifies procedures that allow one to experience/measure a concept
theory
set of related propositions that presents systematic view of phenomena by specifying relationships among concepts
law
statement of fact meant to explain action that is true/universal
research procedures
purpose of sci method is to provide objective eval of data
eight steps to guarantee validity
1) select problem
2) review existing research and theory
3) develop hypotheses/research questions
4) determine methodology (qual and quan)
5) collect relevant data
6) analyze and interpret results
7) present in appropriate form
8) replicate study as necessary
two sections of research
academic (basic, public, less expensive)
private (applied, exclusive, more expensive)
archive data
valuable ideas for researchers
secondary analysis
using data for historical tracking, prediction of audiences in the future, relationships of audience ratings and ad revenue
hypothesis
formal statement regarding variable relationship
four phases
1) understanding the medium
2) studying how medium is used
3) studying medium effects on social/psychological effects
4) medium improvement
concept
abstract idea formed by generalizing from particulars, summarizing related observations
authoritarianism
represents a construct defined to describe certain type of personality
variable
something that can change or vary, more than one value along continuum
marker variable
define/highlight construct under study
independent variable
systematically varied by research
dependent variable
observed, values depend on influence o ind. variable, what the researcher wishes to explain
discrete variable
finite set of values
continuous variable
take any balue, break in subjsections
predictor/antecedent variable
used for predictions
criterion variable
assumed to be affected
control variable
due to independent variable, not another source
Kerlinger
measured/experimental (operational definitions)
qualitative research characteristics
natural setting, flexible, sample size too small, prelim step, data reliability
quantitative research characteristics
bigger sample size, measure variables, exactness is important
triangulation
qual & quant to understand nature of research problem
measurement
assigning numerals to objects
isomorphism
identity or similarity of form/structure
dummy variables
results of conversion process
factor fusion
artificial restriction of range of ratings
Likert scale
summated rating approach, 5 points with descriptions
semantic differential
measure meaning of an item for individual, “good or bad”, “pleasant or unpleasant”
stability
consistency of result
internal consistency
examining consistency among items that compose a scale
Cronbach’s Alpha
analysis of variance to assess internal consistency
cross-test reliability
assess relative correlation between parallel forms of a test
face validity
confirmation of measurement
predictive validity
checking against future outcome
population
group/class of subjects, variables, concepts
census
examination of every individual in population (time/resource constraints)
sample
subset of population, representative of entire population
sampling error
related to selecting sample from population
non-sampling error
every other aspect of research study
parameters
characteristics
sampling methods (2)
1) probability (uses mathematical guidelines where each unit’s chance for selection is known)
2) non-probability (does not follow guidelines)
issues to consider
1) purpose of study
2) cost V. value
3) time constraints
4) amount of acceptable error
screener questions
no qualifications/restrictions
available sample
collection of readily accessible subjects, elements
purposive sample
respondents, subjects, elements selected for specific characteristics/qualities, eliminates those who fail to meet criteria
quota sample
subjects are selected to meet a predetermined percentage
snowball sampling
academic research, researcher randomly contacts qualified respondents, asks for references to others who qualify for research study
simple random sample
each subject, element has equal chance of being selected
RDD
random digit dialing, telephone surveys
ABS
address-based sampling
sampling interval
space between two numbers
sampling frame
complete list of members from population
periodicity
order of items in a population list that may introduce bias in selection process
stratified sample
approach used to get adequate representation of subsample
cluster sampling
select sample in groups/categories
stratified sample (2)
1) proportionate strat. sample (strata w/ sizes based on proportions of population
2) multistage sampling, households are selected
seven factors of sampling
1) project type
2) project purpose
3) project complexity
4) amount of tolerable error
5) time constraints
6) financial constraints
7) previous research in area
central limit theorem
sum of large # of independent and identically distributed random variable
Gaussian distribution
bell-shaped curve
FPCF
finite population correction factor
weighting
(sample balancing) subject totals in given categories do not reach necessary population percentages, subjects responses may be manipulated
simple random sample
entirely by chance, basic
systematic random sample
everyone gets a number, picks every 3rd person, etc.
ethics
right from wrong, proper from improper, no universal definition
general types of theories
1) deontological (rule-based)
2) teleological (balancing)
3) relativistic
categorical imperatives
principles that define appropriate action in all situation
utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill
test for determining rightness of behavior depends on
relativism
no absolute right/wrong way to behave
principles of ethics (4)
1) autonomy
2) non-maleficence
3) beneficence
4) justice
autonomy
self-determination, roots in categorical imperative, researcher respects rights, value, decisions with informed consent
non-maleficence
wrong to intentionally harm other person
beneficence
positive obligation to remove existing harms, confer benefits on others, weighs harmful risks and benefits
justice
deontological, teleological, people who are equal in relevant respects, should be treated equally
Frey, Botan, Kreps rules
1) provide free choice
2) protect right to privacy
3) benefit, don’t harm
4) respect
8 things for researchers to disclose
1) purpose, expected duration and procedures
2) subject rights
3) forseeable consequences
4) factors that will influence
5) research benefits
6) limits of confidentiality
7) incentives
8) contact for questions
concealment
withholding certain info
deception
deliberately lying
Kelman’s three questions
1) how significant is the study?
2) alternative procedures?
3) how severe is deception?
debriefing
describe purpose of research, encourages subject to ask questions
advantages of surveys
inexpensive obtain current info large amounts of info quantitative data used often
disadvantages of surveys
people don’t tell the truth
bad at telling the truth
low response rate
bad questions lead to bias answers
bad survey questions
1) overly complex
2) double barreled
3) aren’t exhaustive
4) mutually exclusive
5) loaded question
four key points of surveys
collect/analyze social, economic, cultural data
based on interviewing, asking for info
representative samples of population being studied
info obtained from samples is valid for general population
two kinds of surveys
descriptive
analytic/explanatory
VALS
values and lifestyle
ratings
percentage of people in an area tuned to station/network
shares
number of people tuned into station, correlated to sets in use
demographics
info like age, gender
content analysis
most commonly used research methods to deal with media and communications (measure human behavior)
quantitative
number of occurrences
systematic
relevant aspects of sample
objective
categorize units using defined criteria
manifest
tangible and observable
operational definition
operations and indicators define concepts
advantages of content analysis
unobtrusive inexpensive current events easy to obtain materials yields quantifiable data
disadvantages of content analysis
finding representative sample determining measurable units obtaining reliability in coding defining terms operationally ensuring validity
advantages of experiments
establishes cause and effect
controlled environment, variables, subject
replicable
detailed report
limitations of experiments
artificial nature
researcher bias
limited scope
conducting questions for experiments
1) setting?
2) experimental design?
3) operationalize variables
4) how to manipulate independent variable
5) select/assign subjects to experimental conditions
6) pilot study
7) administer
confederate
“spy” in experiment
types of variables
independent
dependent
predictor
outcome
nominal variable
numbers used to classify things into categories
gender, sex, political party, ethnicity
**RANDOM
ordinal variable
ranked categories
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, socioeconomic status
interval variable
equal distance between numbers but no true zero point
Likert
most research scales
ratio variable
equal distance between points WITH true zero
types of scales
rating
Likert
semantic differential
levels of measurement
nominal
ordinal
interval
ratio
reliability V. validity
reliability gets consistent answers, validity measures what it’s supposed to
how to interpret SPSS results
anything above 0.7 is considered good validity
reliability
consistent answers, measures stability and internal consistency
validity
measures what it’s supposed to, measures face validity and concurrent validity
types of probability sampling
simple random
systematic random
stratified
cluster
types of non-probability sampling
convenience
purposive
snowball
** introduces sampling bias and error
four main principles of research
provide free choice
protect right to privacy
benefit not harm
treat with respect
voluntary participation
informed consent
warned about risks and discomfort
no coercion of participation
*new media and consent
question order
close ended questions important variables up front one topic at a time transitional questions demographics last
use of content analysis
establish starting point for studies on media effects
