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Psych 201 > Exam Numero Uno > Flashcards

Exam Numero Uno Flashcards

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1
Q

Nuremberg Code

A

a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation set as a result of the subsequent Nuremberg trials at the end of the Second World War. - consent necessary

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2
Q

Declaration of Helsinki

A

The World Medical Association’s international ethical guidelines for medical professionals researching human subjects

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3
Q

What are the issues addressed in the declaration of Helsinki?

A

Research proposals must be reviewed by independent committee
- informed consent is necessary
- risks should not outweigh benefits

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4
Q

Tuskagee Syphilis Study

A

Another origin of research participant protection.
In 1977, president of the U.S. admitted wrong doing and formally apologized to participant-victims. From 1929 to the 70s, U.S. Public Health Service sponsored a study in which poor, uneducated African-American men in Alabama suffered and died of untreated syphilis while researchers studied the severe phys disabilities that appear in advanced stages of the disease. Even when penicillin to treat the disease was available, the study began long after its availability.

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5
Q

National Research Act

A

A set of regulations for the protection of human participants in research, mandated by Congress in 1974.

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6
Q

Belmont Report Principles

A
  1. Respect for persons
  2. Beneficence
  3. Justice
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7
Q

What does respect for persons mean?

A

individuals should be treated as autonomous agents, they should give their full informed consent

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8
Q

What does beneficence mean?

A

Do good, welfare of others is the primary concern, risks vs benefits must be outweighed

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9
Q

what does justice mean?

A

the benefits and risks must be distributed fairly

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10
Q

Tri-Council Policy Statement

A

In Canada, the official statement of ethical conduct for research involving humans; researchers and institutions are expected to adhere to this document to receive federal research funds.

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11
Q

Tri-Council agencies

A
  1. natural sciences and engineering research council of canada
  2. social sciences and humanities research council of canada
  3. canadian institutes of health research
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12
Q

Research Ethics Board (REB)

A

Research oversight group that evaluates research to protect the rights of participants in the study

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13
Q

Respect for human dignity

A

Includes the right to self-determination and the right to full disclosure
- the fundamental principle behind modern research

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14
Q

respect for free and informed consent

A

Respecting the exercise of individual consent

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15
Q

Freedom to withdraw

A

experimenters’ ethical obligation to allow their subjects to discontinue participation in the research project

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16
Q

Removal of harmful consequences

A

if a participant could suffer long term consequences as a result of serving in an experiment the investigator has the responsibility to remove those consequences

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17
Q

respect for justice and inclusiveness

A

the benefits and burdens of research should be distributed fairly across individuals and groups in society

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18
Q

Respect for Confidentiality

A

what a subject does in an experiment should be confidential unless otherwise agreed

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19
Q

balancing harms and benefits

A

Foreseeable harms should not outweigh anticipated benefits

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20
Q

minimizing harm

A

The duty to avoid, prevent, or minimize harm to others; subjects must not be subjected to unnecessary risks of harm

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21
Q

maximizing benefit

A

a duty to benefit others and to maximize net benefits; human research is intended to produce benefits for subjects themselves, for other individuals or society as a whole, or for the advancement of knowledge

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22
Q

informed consent

A

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

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23
Q

what is the problem with informed consent?

A

From a researchers point of view the problem with asking for informed consent is that it may spoil the research.

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24
Q

Reactivity

A

the problem of a participant changing behaviour as a result of being measured, observed, or studied, invalidating the results of a study

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25
Q

partial disclosure

A

actively misleading/withholding information from participant

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26
Q

When is partial disclosure accepted according to the Tri-council?

A
  • the risk to subject is minimal
  • does not affect rights and welfare of the participant
  • alternative methods have been ruled out
  • participants are provided with full disclosure after participation
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27
Q

Problems with partial disclosure?

A

once participants have been misled they may react differently in subsequent experiments, the participants may feel duped and consequently experience a loss of self esteem or develop negative feeligns about research

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28
Q

Debriefing

A

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

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29
Q

reasons for debriefing

A

to inform the participants about the nature of any misleading that has occured during the experiment
- to provide an additional safeguard against unintended effects of the research
- provides an opportunity to answer any of the participants questions

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30
Q

What is a measure?

A

devices or procedures that researchers use to gauge the dependant variable
Example: IQ/Personality tests, weight scales, raters (like observers documenting the number of aggressive events that occur)

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31
Q

What are the two characteristics of a measure?

A

Reliability and validity
IMPORTANT: every measure is made up of a true score and measurement error

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32
Q

What is Reliability?

A

The consistency of your measure; will your measure produce similar results when repeated measurements are taken under ideal circumstances?

Has 2 components: The true score, and measurement error

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33
Q

What are the 3 types of reliability?

A

Test-retest
Split-half
Inter-rater reliability

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34
Q

Explain the 2 components of reliability

A

The true score: The real score on the variable

Measurement error: the difference between the measured value of a variable and the true value

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35
Q

What is test-retest reliability?

A

The extent to which the test yields consistent results over time
-participants are given the same test at two different points in time to see whether the results are the same across both administrations
-similar scores across the two administrations demonstrate reliability (consistency in the measuring device)

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36
Q

What are some problems with test-retest reliability?

A

-Subjects may remember how they responded on the first administration and respond accordingly on the second making the measure appear reliable

-The person may “change” between the two administrations making the measure appear unreliable
example: mood questionnaire, persons mood changes between the two tests making it appear unreliable

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37
Q

What is split-half reliability?

A

-total score of one half of the test is correlated with the total score on the other half of the test (two forms of the same test)
-if the test is reliable then the performance on one half of the test will be related to performance on the other half of the test
-the two halves of the test are administered at the same time so the variable being measures has no time to change

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38
Q

What is the problem with split-half reliability?

A

The two forms are not equivalent

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39
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

The consistency across raters (observers, researchers, etc.)
-good inter-rater reliability is when two raters get the same measurement of the same variable
-if two raters are using the same operational definition, they should get the same results

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40
Q

What could be a problem with inter-rater reliability?

A

The two raters using different operational definitions and therefore collecting different results/data

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41
Q

Define: psychology

A

the scientific study of behaviour and cognitive processes

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42
Q

what are the key elements in the definition of psychology?

A
  • scientific study
  • systematic
  • objective
  • behaviour
  • cognitive processes
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43
Q

why is psychology a scientific study?

A

involves systematic and objective methods of observation.

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44
Q

what is it meant that psychology is systematic?

A

it is carried out by using step by step procedures

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45
Q

why is psychology objective?

A

it is uninfluenced by emotions or personal prejudices

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46
Q

what does it mean that psychology studies behaviour?

A

behaviour is any action that can be observed, measured, or recorded

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47
Q

what does it mean that psychology studies cognitive processes?

A

mental activities that are associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering.

–> cannot be directly observed, but their existence can be inferred from observable behaviour

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48
Q

what are the two things that influence behaviour?

A

authority and intuition.

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49
Q

How is authority a way of understanding behaviour?

A

accepting unquestionably what someone else tells you

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50
Q

why is authority a limited way to understand behaviour?

A
  • does not always provide valid answers
  • the source may not be authoritative
  • the source may be bias
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51
Q

how do we use intuition as a way to understand behaviour?

A

accepting as true our own judgements about behaviour and the world.

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52
Q

what are the different limitations that intuition has on understanding behaviour?

A
  • confirmation bias
  • fundamental attribution error
  • availability heuristic
  • hindsight bias
  • mood effects
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53
Q

define: confirmation bias

A

a tendency to notice and remember information consistent with our views and ignore information to counter our views.

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54
Q

define: fundamental attribution error

A

when interpreting another’s behaviour we tend to overestimate internal factors and underestimate situational factors

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55
Q

define: availability heuristic

A

when people judge the frequency of an event by how easily examples come to mind.

56
Q

define: hindsight bias

A

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

57
Q

define: mood effects.

A

our mood can influence our perception, judgement, and decisions

58
Q

define: empiricism

A

understanding behaviour through observation

  • knowledge comes in through the senses, based on observation
  • not based on what someone tells you, intuition, or tradition
59
Q

how is the scientific method than other ways of understanding behaviour?

A
  • ideas concerning behaviour must be subjected to an empirical test
  • tested under conditions that either supports or refutes the hypothesis
  • helps avoid biases when we are observing behaviour
  • provides a set of objective rules for gathering and evaluating information.
60
Q

what are the 7 scientific explanations for behaviour?

every rat testicle places gonoria to rectums

A
  • empirical
  • rational
  • testable
  • parsimonious
  • general
  • tentative
  • rigorously evaluated
61
Q

characteristic of the scientific method-

Define: Empirical

A

based objective and systematic observation

62
Q

characteristic of the scientific method-

Define: rational

A

follows the rules of logic and are consistent with known facts

63
Q

characteristic of the scientific method-

Define: testable

A

placed under conditions in which they can be supported or refuted

64
Q

characteristic of the scientific method-

Define: parsimonious

is a word of the day

A

have a few assumptions when explaining behaviour

  • means being stingy
  • closing the simplest scientific expiation that fits the evidence
  • has the fewest assumptions
65
Q

characteristic of the scientific method-

Define: general

A

accounts for a wide variety of behaviour / data

66
Q

characteristic of the scientific method-

Define: tentative

A

may be replaced in the future

67
Q

characteristic of the scientific method-

Define: rigorously evaluated

A

constantly being tested and evaluated

68
Q

what is the fundamental characteristic of the scientific method?

hint, its a word of the day

A

Empiricism!!

empiricism emphasizes the role of experience end evidence, especially sensory perception, in understanding the world over intuition, authority and tradition.

based on observation

69
Q

what are the the procedures of the scientific method?

apples, oranges slip open

A

1) accuracy

2) objectivity

3) skepticism

4) open mindedness

70
Q

Essential Component:

what is meant by accuracy

A

gathering and evaluating information in as careful, precise and error-free manner as possible

71
Q

Essential Component:

what is meant by objectivity?

A

obtaining and evaluating information in a manner that is free from biases

72
Q

Essential Component:

what is meant by skepticism?

A

accepting finding as accurate only after they have been repeated and verified by many different scientists

73
Q

Essential Component:

what is meant by open-mindedness

A

willingness to change one’s views in the face of new evidence

74
Q

define: theory

A

an organized set of principles that describes, predicts and explains some natural phenomenon

two important functions:
1) they organize and explain a variety of facts

2) they generate hypothesis about behaviour

75
Q

define hypothesis

A

a specific, testable prediction; it is a tentative statement concerning the relationship between variables.

for example, people will be more likely to remember information when its organized.

76
Q

what are the procedures of the scientific method?

5 steps

A

1) a theory is formulated

2) make predictions (hypothesis)

3) hypothesis is tested through observation or research

4) results either increase confidence in theory or lead to modification of theory (back to step 1)

5) theory is either accepted or rejected - leading to research being continued or abandoned.

77
Q

fun fact: you can never prove a theory, you can only disprove it.

A

why you might ask?

because you can never be sure of all the information out there

78
Q

define a variable

A

a characteristic or quality that can take on one or more values (it varies)

79
Q

define: indépendant variable

A

the variable that you manipulate

80
Q

define: dependant variable

A

the variable that is measured

81
Q

what is an operation definition?

A

defining variables in terms of how they are measured and manipulated

82
Q

what are the steps in the research process?

7 steps

A

1) develop a research idea

2) generate a research question

3) operationally define variables

4) decide how you are going to answer your research question

5) conduct the study

6) analyze the data

7) report the results

83
Q

what is basic research?

A

attempts to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behaviour

84
Q

what is applied research?

A

is concerned with immediate practical application or with the solution to a particular problem

85
Q

what is the major goal of basic research?

A

the major goal is to acquire general information about a phenomenon

86
Q

what is the major goal of applied research?

A

the major goal is to generate information that can be applied to “real world” problems

87
Q

what is an example of basic research?

A
  • the migration pattern of polar bears
  • how stress effects labor productivity
88
Q

what is an example of applied research?

A
  • a study trying to produce higher test scores
  • research trying to find the cure to a disease
89
Q

what is a primary source?

A

literature that contains the full research report

90
Q

what is a secondary source?

A

literature that summarizes the information from primary sources

91
Q

why is it best to use a primary source when possible?

A
  • authors may interpret the findings incorrectly in a secondary source
  • secondary sources often lack detail
92
Q

what is an abstract (of a research paper)?

A

a brief comprehensive summary of the contents in an article

93
Q

what is an introduction (of a research paper)

A

presents the specific problem under study and describes the research strategy.

  • discusses relevant information
  • discusses the purpose and rationale of the study
94
Q

what part of a research paper would discuss relevant literature and discuss the purpose and rational of the study?

A

the introduction

95
Q

what part of a research paper would describe in detail how the study was conducted?

A

the method section

96
Q

what are the three things that are identified in the method section (of a research paper)

A
  • participants or subjects (description, how many)
  • apparatus or materials (scales used, measures used)
  • procedures
    (how it was done)
97
Q

what are the results section of a research paper?

A

summarizes the data collected and the statistical or data analytic treatment used

98
Q

what is the reference section of a research paper?

A

an alphabetical list of all the works cited in the paper.

99
Q

what is the figures section of a research paper?

A

graphs summarizing the research data

100
Q

what is the appendix section of a research paper..

is it required?

A

used for a detailed secretion of materials, ect.

it is not required.

101
Q

what are the steps someone should take in developing a research idea?

A
  • unsystematic observation
  • systematic observation
  • past research
  • theories
  • the need to solve practical problems
102
Q

what are the three things that a good operational definition has?

A

1) describes how a variables will be measured or manipulated

2) be replicable

3) use objective, simple and concrete language

103
Q

What are correlation coefficients typically used for?

A

To asses reliability
-The higher the correlation the higher the reliability

104
Q

What is Validity?

A

The extent to which a test measures what it is designed to measure

105
Q

What is a construct?

A

A complex variable that is not directly observable(its psychological), that has been developed to explain behaviour on the basis of some theory (intelligence, self-esteem, etc.)

-a thing you cant directly see that we use to explain a behaviour

106
Q

What is construct validity

A

Is the extent to which a test measures the theoretical variable (construct) that it is supposed to be measuring
- It seeks agreement between a theoretical concept ons a specific measuring device or procedure

107
Q

What are 6 indicators of construct validity

fat cunts pee collectively down concrete

A
  1. Face Validity
  2. Concurrent Validity
  3. Predictive Validity
  4. Convergent Validity
  5. Discriminant Validity
  6. Content Validity
108
Q

What is Face Validity?

A

How well the test appears to measure what is was designed to measure
*not the strongest type

109
Q

What is Concurrent Validity?

A

The measure should be able to distinguish between groups that it should theoretically be able to distinguish between
-The scores on your measure and on the variable you want to predict are collected at the same time

EXAMPLE: a measure of bipolar disorder should be able to distinguish between people who are diagnosed with bipolar disorder and those who are not
** the test should be able to predict who has bipolar disorder and who does not

110
Q

What is Predictive Validity?

A

The ability of a test to predict a future outcome; you compare scores on your test with the criterion measure observed at a later point in time

Example: do SAT scores predict success in college

111
Q

What is criterion?

A

The variable you want to predict

112
Q

What is Convergent Validity?

A

The extent that the scores on your measure are related to some on another measure that measure the same construct.
^This is her definition but its confusing, heres an online definition:
The extent to which responses on a test exhibit a strong relationship with responses on conceptually similar tests

Example:
you would expect two separate measures of motivation to be correlated as they are both measuring the same construct

113
Q

What is Discriminant Validity?

A

That the measure is not related to constructs it shouldn’t be related to

Example: a measure of shyness should not correlate positively with a measure of extroversion

114
Q

What is Content Validity?

A

The extent to which a measure reflects the specific intended domain of interest

Example: a survey to test children’s math skills shouldn’t just have multiplication questions. It should also include addition, subtraction, and division.

115
Q

Can a measure be reliable but not valid?

A

yes

116
Q

Can a measure be valid but not reliable?

A

no

117
Q

What is a scale?

A

A classification scheme that describes the nature of info within the values that you assign to variables
-What dot the values on a scale mean?
-What kind of information fo they hold?

118
Q

What are the four scales of measurement?

A
  1. Nominal Scales
  2. Ordinal Scales
  3. Interval Scales
  4. Ratio Scales
119
Q

What are Nominal Scales?

A

The numbers are used to refer to categories, that is, they have no numerical value
-lowest level of measurement
-not really a scale per se because they have no numerical or quantitative properties
*** the numbers simply refer to differences in category

Example: there are three majors:
1 = History
2 = English
3 = Psychology
-not listing in a ranking order, just stating the majors

120
Q

What are Ordinal Scales?

A

Ranking; they involve quantitative distinctions by allowing us to rank order people or objects on the variable being measured
-numbers start taking on a numerical meaning

Example: 1st, 2nd, 3rd in a race
-people are ranked in terms of speed but the difference between each is not necessarily equal

121
Q

What are Interval Scales

A

The intervals between numbers are equal in size
-no absolute zero that would indicate the absence of the variable
-cannot make meaningful ratio statements

Example: IQ would be measured on an interval scale:
-a score of 0 on an IQ test does not indicate the absence of intelligence
-you cannot therefore say that a person who scored 140 on an IQ test is twice as intelligent as a person who scored 70

122
Q

What is a Ratio Scale?

A

Equal intervals and an absolute zero that indicates the absence of the variable

Example: weight, time, number of responses, number of items remembered

123
Q

What is sensitivity in terms of measurement?

A

A measure is sensitive to the extent that is detects small but real differences in what is being measured

124
Q

What are Range effects?

A

The sensitivity of a measure can be affected by a restricted range of scores; they occur when the values of the measure have an upper or lower limit: Floor Effects and Ceiling Effects (these are covered in another card

125
Q

What are floor and ceiling effects?

A

Floor: Although differences between conditions may exist, they cannot be detected because all conditions perform near zero on the measure
Ceiling: Although differences between conditions may exist, they cannot be detected because all conditions perform near 100%

126
Q

What is reactivity?

A

Subjects may behave differently in the experimental session (compared to the real world) simply because they are in an experiment

127
Q

What are Demand Characteristics?

A

A subtle clue that makes participants aware of what the experimenter expects to find or how participants are expected to behave.
Demand characteristics can change the outcome of an experiment because participants will often alter their behaviour to conform to expectations.

128
Q

What are 5 ways you can neutralize the effects of demand characteristics?

A
  1. Use partial disclosure
  2. Allow participants to habituate to the researchers presence
  3. In a questionnaire, use filler items (questions that don’t matter and will take their attention away from the real purpose of the questionnaire)
  4. Use naturalistic observation
  5. Conduct a post-experimental inquiry - find out whether subjects had guessed the true purpose of the experiment and then eliminate those who did
129
Q

What is Experimenter Bias?

A

Any intentional or unintentional influence that the experimenter exerts on the subject on an attempt to confirm the hypothesis

130
Q

What are three ways to neutralize the effects of experimenter bias?

A
  1. Run participants in all conditions at the same time
  2. Using blind techniques
  3. Automate your experiment (have a computer collect the data)
131
Q

What is single blind procedure?

A

The participant is unaware of which condition they have been placed in
- it eliminates the possibility of reactivity

132
Q

What is double-blind procedure?

A

The participants and researcher are unaware of which condition the participants are in
- it eliminates the possibility of experimenter bias and reactivity

133
Q

What are advantages and disadvantages of automating your experiment?

A

Advantage: Measures tend to be more accurate and less variable

Disadvantage: you may miss important details within an experimental session and these details may provide insight into behaviour

134
Q

What is a unit of analysis?

A

The entity that you wish to be able to say something about at the end of your study
- the “who” or “what” you are studying

135
Q

What are the four units of analysis?

A
  1. Individuals
    - most commonly studied on psych
  2. Groups
    -patrol districts, city blocks, gangs, cities, etc.
  3. Organizations
    -formal political or social organizations - police departments, prisons, drug treatment facilities
  4. Social artifacts
    -the products of people and their behaviour - police crime reports, crime stories, criminal history records

Psych 201 (3 decks)

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