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Introduction to Psychology I00 > Exam No. 3 > Flashcards

Exam No. 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Emotions

A

an intrapersonal state in response to an internal or external event

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2
Q

What are the 4 components of emotion?

A
  • physiological: changes in bodily arousal
    > heart rate, temperature, respiration
  • cognitive, feeling: subjective appraisal and interpretation of one’s feelings and environment
  • physical, behavioural: expression of the emotion verbally and non-verbally
    > smiling, frowning, whining, laughing, reflecting, slouching
  • emotional, behavioural: keeping the emotion present (happiness) or removing it (sadness)
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3
Q

How are emotions adaptive?

A
  • signals important events and directs our attention to them
  • fight or flight - keeps us alive
  • social communication - provides observable info about internal states and intentions so emotions influence how others behave towards us
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4
Q

What does the sympathetic nervous system prepare for the following body parts or systems to do for action?

  • eyes
  • mouth
  • skin
  • lungs
  • heart
  • adrenal glands
  • digestion
  • blood
  • palms
A
  • pupils dilate
  • salivation decreases
  • perspires, goosebumps
  • breathing rate increases
  • accelerates
  • release stress hormones
  • decreased motility
  • blood vessels constrict; blood sugar increases
  • perspires
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5
Q

What does the parasympathetic nervous system do for the following body parts or systems to return to its normal state?

  • eyes
  • mouth
  • skin
  • lungs
  • heart
  • adrenal glands
  • digestion
  • blood
  • palms
A
  • pupils constrict
  • salivation increases
  • dries up, no goosebumps
  • breathing rate decreases
  • slows
  • decrease release of stress hormones
  • increased motility
  • blood vessels dilate, blood sugar drops
  • dries up
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6
Q

Universality hypothesis

A

emotional expression have the same meaning for everyone

  • originally proposed by Darwin
  • people are generally good at judging and creating the same facial expressions
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7
Q

what are the 6 universal emotions?

A
  • anger
  • disgust
  • fear
  • happiness
  • sadness
  • surprise
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8
Q

What are 3 ways to measure emotions - detecting lies?

A
  1. behavioural displays of emotion
  • observes behaviour + facial expressions
  1. self-reports of emotion
  • has low validity
  1. psychophysiological reactions
  • face electromyography
  • heart rate
  • skin conductance
  • fMRI
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9
Q

What are the functions of emotions?

A
  1. COGNITIVE functions
  • emotions help organize and retrieve memories
  • prioritize concerns, needs, and goals
  • guide judgements + helps us make decisions
  1. BEHAVIOURAL functions
  • emotions alter behaviours
  • ACTION TENDENCIES: emotions are associated w/ predictable patterns of behaviour that help us adapt + survive
  1. SOCIAL functions
    - emotions are the foundations of relationships
  • emotions help improve relationship quality
  • helps w/ empathy and work performance
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10
Q

What are the 5 theories of emotion?

A
  1. James-Lange
    - felt emotions result from physiological changes rather than being their cause
  2. Cannon-Bard
    - the subjective experience of emotion + the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (bodily arousal) occur simultaneously
  3. Schachter + Singer’s Two-Factor
    - an emotional state is a function of both physiological arousal + cognition
  4. cognitive-mediational
    - cognitive interpretations particularly appraisals of events are key to experiences of emotion
  • developed by Richard Lazarus
  • cognitive appraisal is a cognitive mediator b/w environmental stimuli + our reaction to those stimuli
  1. facial-feedback theory
    - subjective experiences of emotion are influenced by sensory feedback from facial muscular activity or FACIAL EFFERENCE
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11
Q

James-Lange Theory

A
  • somatic theory of emotions
  • states that emotion is our conscious awareness of our physiological responses to stimuli
  • body before thoughts/emotion occurs after the body is aroused
  • our body arousal occurs first and then the cognitive awareness and we label the feeling
    > example: I’m angry
  • according to the theory, if something makes us smile, we may then feel happy
  • process:
    > stranger
    > physiological arousal
    > emotion: fear
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12
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory

A
  • simultaneous body response + cognitive experience
  • asserts that we have a conscious/cognitive experience of an emotion at the same time as our body is responding, NOT AFTERWARD
  • human body responses run PARALLEL to the cognitive responses rather than causing them
  • emotions are not only a separate mental experience, when our body responses are blocked, emotions do not feel as intense
  • our cognitions influence our emotions in many ways including our interpretations of stimuli
  • process:
    > stranger
    > thalamus relays info
    > at the same: physiological arousal and emotion (fear)
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13
Q

Schachter-Singer “Two-Factor” Theory

A
  • emotion = body + cognitive label
  • suggests that emotions do not exist until we add a label to whatever body sensations we are feeling
  • the label completes the emotion
  • process:
    > stranger
    > physiological arousal
    > label, example: I’m scared”
    > emotion: fear
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14
Q

What is the spillover effect?

A
  • there was a study done by Stanley Schachter + Jerome Singer in 1962
  • subjects were aroused when injections of adrenaline were given
  • the subjects interpreted their agitation to whatever emotion other people in the room appeared to be feeling
  • the emotional label “spilled over” from others
  • their feelings were influenced by the emotions other people appeared to be feeling
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15
Q

What is the appraisal process?

A
  • appraisal means to assess something
  • there are 2 questions to ask when facing a possible stressor
    > is this a challenge and will I tackle it?
    > is it overwhelming and will I give up?
  • process:
    1. stressful event (tough math test)
  1. appraisal
    - threat (yikes! this is beyond me)
    > challenge (I’ve got to apply all I know)
  2. response
    - stressed to distraction
    > aroused, focused
  • there are a few conditions that are inherently and universally stressful
  • we can often choose our appraisal and our responses
  • the exceptions are extreme, chronic physical threats or challenges, such as noise or starvation
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15
Q

What is the survival function of emotions?

A
  • EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
    > emotions are innate, passed through generations b/ they are necessary for survival
  • BASIC EMOTIONS
    > a group of emotions preprogrammed into all humans regardless of culture
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15
Q

What is the physiology of emotion?

A
  • different emotions do seem to have different underlying patterns of physiological arousal
  • anger,fear + sadness all produce higher heart rates compared to happiness, surprise and disgust
  • anger produces a much larger increase in finger temperature than any other emotion
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16
Q

What is the emotion + survival function for the following?

  • threat
  • obstacle
  • potential mate
  • loss of valued person
  • sudden novel object
A

threat
E: fear, terror, anxiety
SF: fight, flight

obstacle
E: anger, rage
SF: biting, hitting

potential mate
E: joy, ecstasy, excitement
SF: courtship, mating

loss of valued person
E: sadness, grief
SF: crying for help

sudden novel object
E: surprise
SF: stopping, attending

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16
Q

What does facial efference mean?

A

sensory feedback from facial muscular activity

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17
Q

What is emotional self-regulation?

A
  • harder for boys than for girls
  • behaviours and language is important
  • positively related to language development
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18
Q

What is facial feedback hypothesis?

A

emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify

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19
Q

What are complex emotions?

A
  • in second year, self-conscious (self-evaluative) emotions emerge: embarrassment, shame, guilt, envy, pride
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19
Q

What are the emotional display rules?

A
  • suppress and express
  • takes time to master
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19
Q

What are basic or primary emotions?

A
  • present at birth: interest, distress, disgust, contentment
  • emerges between 2 and 7 months: anger, sadness, joy, surprise, fear
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20
Q

What happens in the brain regarding emotions?

A
  • there is no single structure of the brain linked to each of the 6 basic emotions
  • it’s actually the activation of the circuitry b/w the structures in addition to the structures themselves that is critical for our conscious experience of an emotion
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21
Q

What is the emotional brain?

A
  • the AMYGDALA plays an important role in emotion, it’s a threat detector
  • APPRAISAL: the evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus
  • LEDOUX: fast (thalamus -> amygdala) and slow (thalamus -> cortex -> amygdala) pathways of fear in the brain)
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22
Q

How are people able to detect emotions in others?

A
  • EXPRESSIVE BEHAVIOURS:
    > people read a great deal of emotional content in the EYES + the FACES
  • introverts are better at detecting emotions
  • extroverts have emotions that are easier to read
  • we are primed to quickly detect negative emotion words + negative emotion words
  • those who have been abused are biased toward seeing fearful faces as angry
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23
Q

What are detection of emotions based off of?

A

on context

  • the situation
  • gestures
  • tears
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24
Q

What are the 4 features that are more readily observable that seem to distinguish b/w sincere and insincere facial expressions?

A
  • morphology (reliable muscles)
  • symmetry
  • duration
  • temporal patterning
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25
Q

What signifies genuine happiness?

A

the corner crinkle/ crinkle eyes

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26
Q

What are good indicators that help detect lies + fakes?

A
  • polygraphs which detect physiological arousal, are NOT useful at correctly identifying when people are lying
  • visible signs of lying are…
    > decrease in eye blinks
    > facial movements change
27
Q

What is positive psychology?

A

the study + enrichment of…
- positive feelings (happiness, optimism)

  • positive traits (perseverance, wisdom)
  • positive abilities (interpersonal skills)
  • virtues (altruism, tolerance)
28
Q

What is Canada’s happiness level on a scale of 0 to 10?

A

7.4

29
Q

What do happy people tend to be?

A
  • optimistic
  • outgoing
  • tender-minded
  • individuals w/ high self-esteem, spiritual, goal-directed and have a sense of control over their lives
30
Q

What did the longitudinal study say about happy people?

A

highly optimistic people had a 55% reduced risk of death and a 23% reduced risk of heart problems

31
Q

What is memory?

A
  • the capacity to retain + retrieve info
  • the reconstruction of things that have already occurred, it is NOT a recording device that makes exact copies
  • w/o memory, we would need care 24/7
  • it provides us w/ our identities
32
Q

What is the processes of memory (basics of the 3-stage model)?

A

ENCODING
- we transform what we perceive, think or feel into an enduring memory

STORAGE
- process of maintaining info in memory over time

RETRIEVAL
- process of bringing into mind info that has previously been encoded and stored

33
Q

What are the 2 theories of how memory works?

A
  1. PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED-PROCESSING MODEL
    - info is represented in the brain as a pattern of activation across entire neural networks
  2. INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL
    - info passes through 3 memory stores during encoding, storage and retrieval
34
Q

Parallel Distributed-Processing (Connectionist) Model

A

memories are stored in a network of associations throughout our brains

35
Q

Information Processing Model

A

ANALOGY: information storage in human memory is like the information storage in computers

  • it subdivides memory into 3 different stores
    > sensory
    > short-term
    > long-term

PROCESS:
- stimulus from the environment
- sensory memory -> encoding
- working memory -> encoding/ <- retrieval
- long-term memory

36
Q

What is the purpose, duration and capacity for…
- sensory memory
- working memory/ short-term memory
- long-term memory

A

sensory memory
P: holds sensory info
D: lasts up to half a second for visual, 2-4 seconds for auditory
C: large

working memory
P: holds info temporarily for analysis
D: up to 30 seconds w/o rehearsal
C: limited to 5-9 items

long-term memory
P: relatively permanent storage
D: relatively permanent
C: relatively unlimited

*info not transferred is lost

37
Q

What happens in box 1/sensory memory?

A
  • brief preservation of information in original sensory form
  • auditory/echoic + visual/ionic, approximately 1/4 second
  • George Sperling (1960): classic experiment on visual sensory store

-

38
Q

What is iconic memory?

A

a fleeting photographic memory

39
Q

Encoding

A
  • the process of getting information into memory
  • the role of attention
  • focusing awareness
  • selective attention = selection of input
  • divided attention
40
Q

What are the types of encoding?

A

PHONOLOGICAL
- encoding based on sound

VISUAL
- encoding based on how the info looks
- people w/ amazing visual encoding skills have eidetic (photographic) memory

SEMANTIC
- encoding based on the meaning of the information

41
Q

What are the levels of processing?

A
  • incoming info gets processed at different levels:
  • shallow processing
    > involves structural encoding: emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus
  • intermediate processing
    > involves phonemic encoding: emphasizes what a word sounds like
  • deep processing
    > longer lasting memory codes
    > involves semantic encoding: emphasizes the meaning of verbal input
  • encoding levels:
    > visual = shallow = just the letters
    > phonemic = intermediate = sounds, reading
    > semantic = deep = meaning
42
Q

What is the retention like at the 3 levels of processing?

A
  • the depth of processing increases from structural encoding to phonemic encoding to semantic encoding
  • structural, phonemic and semantic encoding involve progressively deeper levels of processing which lead to progressively better retention
43
Q

How is knowledge represented and organized in memory?

A
  • clustering and conceptual hierarchies
  • schemas + scripts
  • semantic networks
  • connectionist networks + PDP models
44
Q

What is organizational encoding?

A

categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items

45
Q

What is enriching encoding?

A
  • ELABORATION: linking to a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
  • VISUAL: creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered
  • SELF-REFERENT ENCODING: making info. personally meaningful
46
Q

Short-Term Memory

A
  • DURABILITY OF STORAGE
    > about 20 seconds w/o rehearsal

> rehearsal: the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information

  • MAINTENANCE VS. ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL
  • CAPACITY OF STORAGE
    > magical number 7 plus or minus 2 ( 4 plus or minus 1)

> chunking: grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit

  • non-sensory info that is held for more than a few seconds.
  • phone numbers are chunked for you and used to be only 7 digits
  • area codes are easy additions
  • it is NOT limited to phonemic encoding
  • loss of info is not due to only decay
47
Q

How do you extend short-term memory?

A

chunking, rehearsal and elaboration

48
Q

What is working memory ?

A
  • active maintenance of information in short-term storage
  • a mental workspace that actively and simultaneously processes different types of info and supports other cognitive functions like problem-solving, planning and interacts w/ LTM
  • working memory capacity (WMC)
49
Q

What is the difference b/w STM + working memory?

A

STM
- 3 box model
- 5-9 items
- up to 30 second duration w/o rehearsal

WORKING MEMORY
- temporary storage and manipulates information in short-term storage

  1. CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
    - monitors + coordinates entire working memory system
  • chooses how much attention to give a stimulus + prioritizes info in the phonological loop

> that is, little voice that keeps content in memory by repeating spoken and written info. that needs to be recalled

  1. VISUAL SPATIAL SKETCHPAD
    - that is, keeps track of spatial information
  2. EPISODIC BUFFER
    - links information together from other parts of working memory
50
Q

Long-term memory

A
  • storage that holds info for hours, days, weeks or years - no known capacity
  • flashbulb memories
  • are STM and LTM really different?

> phonemic vs. semantic encoding

> decay vs. interference-based forgetting

51
Q

What is long-term potentiation?

A
  • main neural mechanism by which a memory is stored in the brain
  • during LTP, dendrites grow and branch out and certain synapses increase in number
  • changes take time so LTM’s remain vulnerable b/ they are undergoing consolidation/stabilization which can take years
52
Q

What are the systems and types of memory?

A
  • implicit vs. explicit
  • declarative vs. non-declarative (procedural)
  • semantic vs. episodic
  • prospective vs. retrospective
53
Q

What are the types of long-term memory?

A
  • classically conditioned memory
  • episodic memory
  • explicit memory
  • implicit memory
  • procedural memory
  • priming
  • semantic memory
54
Q

Explicit memory
Semantic memory
Episodic memory

A
  • types of long-term memory

EM: memory w/ conscious recall

SM: facts + general knowledge (12 months in a year, spiders have 8 legs)

EPM: personal experiences and events (high school graduation, birth of first child)

55
Q

Implicit memory
Procedural memory
Classically conditioned memory
Priming

A
  • types of long-term memory

IM: memory w/o conscious recall

PM: motor skills + habits (how to drive a car, brush your teeth)

CCM: conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli (phobias, some aspects of prejudice)

P: earlier exposure facilitates retrieval (heightened fears after reading a scary novel)

56
Q

Declarative memory system

A

encompasses factual info + explicit memories

57
Q

Non-declarative /procedural memory system

A

encompasses actions, perceptual motor skills, conditioned reflexes and implicit memories

  • example: riding a bike
58
Q

Retrieval/ how do we get information out of memory?

A
  • using cues to aid retrieval
  • the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
    >a failure in retrieval
    > retrieval cues

- reinstating the context of an event
> context cues

- reconstructing memories
> misinformation effect
> source monitoring, reality monitoring

- information is sometimes available in memory even when it is NOT accessible

59
Q

Retrieval cues

A

external information that helps bring stored information to mind

60
Q

Encoding specificity principle

A

idea that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps recreate the specific way in which info was initially encoded

61
Q

State dependent retrieval

A

tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same mental or physical state during encoding + retrieval

62
Q

Transfer/context-dependent processing

A

memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding context of the situations match

63
Q

What is required for the activation of information in LTM ?

A
  • retrieval
  • multiple, self-generated cues maximize recall
  • generating your own association
    > 3 associations is better than 1
    > 3 associations can generate high rates of recall
64
Q

Why do we forget?

A
  • ineffective encoding
  • decay
  • interference
    > proactive
    > retroactive
65
Q

Proactive Interference

A
  • situations in which info is learned earlier impairs memory for information acquired later
  • old info like your friend’s old email address interferes with your ability to remember her new work email address
66
Q

Retroactive Interference

A
  • situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later
  • the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
  • learning a new password for a new bank card can disrupt recall of the password for your existing bank card
67
Q

Misinformation Effect: suggestibilty

A
  • incorporating misleading information into the memory of an event
  • “how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”
68
Q

Retrograde amnesia vs. anterograde amnesia

A

retrograde: memory for events that occured prior to the onset of amnesia is lost

anterograde: memory for events that occur subsequent to the onset of amnesia suffers

69
Q

neural circuitry

A
  • localized neural circuits
  • reusable pathways in the brain (neurogenesis)
  • long-term potentiation
70
Q

anatomy

A
  • anterograde + retrograde amnesia
  • cerebral cortex
  • prefrontal cortex
  • hippocampus
  • consolidation
71
Q

What revealed that there were different kinds of memory dependent on different parts of the brain?

A

HM would be able to practice a task and not recall he had and do the task very well but not know why.

  • he could unconsciously remember a motor skill but not a fact or event
  • HM has…
    > motor memory
    > some spatial memory
    > some long term memory

but NO…
> declarative memory
> episodic memory

72
Q

How do you improve everyday memory?

A
  • engage in adequate rehearsal
  • distribute practice + minimize interference
  • engage in deep processing + transfer-appropriate processing
  • organize information
  • use verbal mnemonics
  • use visual mnemonics

Introduction to Psychology I00 (1 decks)

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