Exam No. 3 Flashcards
(77 cards)
1
Q
Emotions
A
an intrapersonal state in response to an internal or external event
2
Q
What are the 4 components of emotion?
A
- physiological: changes in bodily arousal
> heart rate, temperature, respiration - cognitive, feeling: subjective appraisal and interpretation of one’s feelings and environment
- physical, behavioural: expression of the emotion verbally and non-verbally
> smiling, frowning, whining, laughing, reflecting, slouching - emotional, behavioural: keeping the emotion present (happiness) or removing it (sadness)
3
Q
How are emotions adaptive?
A
- signals important events and directs our attention to them
- fight or flight - keeps us alive
- social communication - provides observable info about internal states and intentions so emotions influence how others behave towards us
4
Q
What does the sympathetic nervous system prepare for the following body parts or systems to do for action?
- eyes
- mouth
- skin
- lungs
- heart
- adrenal glands
- digestion
- blood
- palms
A
- pupils dilate
- salivation decreases
- perspires, goosebumps
- breathing rate increases
- accelerates
- release stress hormones
- decreased motility
- blood vessels constrict; blood sugar increases
- perspires
5
Q
What does the parasympathetic nervous system do for the following body parts or systems to return to its normal state?
- eyes
- mouth
- skin
- lungs
- heart
- adrenal glands
- digestion
- blood
- palms
A
- pupils constrict
- salivation increases
- dries up, no goosebumps
- breathing rate decreases
- slows
- decrease release of stress hormones
- increased motility
- blood vessels dilate, blood sugar drops
- dries up
6
Q
Universality hypothesis
A
emotional expression have the same meaning for everyone
- originally proposed by Darwin
- people are generally good at judging and creating the same facial expressions
7
Q
what are the 6 universal emotions?
A
- anger
- disgust
- fear
- happiness
- sadness
- surprise
8
Q
What are 3 ways to measure emotions - detecting lies?
A
- behavioural displays of emotion
- observes behaviour + facial expressions
- self-reports of emotion
- has low validity
- psychophysiological reactions
- face electromyography
- heart rate
- skin conductance
- fMRI
9
Q
What are the functions of emotions?
A
- COGNITIVE functions
- emotions help organize and retrieve memories
- prioritize concerns, needs, and goals
- guide judgements + helps us make decisions
- BEHAVIOURAL functions
- emotions alter behaviours
- ACTION TENDENCIES: emotions are associated w/ predictable patterns of behaviour that help us adapt + survive
- SOCIAL functions
- emotions are the foundations of relationships
- emotions help improve relationship quality
- helps w/ empathy and work performance
10
Q
What are the 5 theories of emotion?
A
- James-Lange
- felt emotions result from physiological changes rather than being their cause - Cannon-Bard
- the subjective experience of emotion + the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (bodily arousal) occur simultaneously - Schachter + Singer’s Two-Factor
- an emotional state is a function of both physiological arousal + cognition - cognitive-mediational
- cognitive interpretations particularly appraisals of events are key to experiences of emotion
- developed by Richard Lazarus
- cognitive appraisal is a cognitive mediator b/w environmental stimuli + our reaction to those stimuli
- facial-feedback theory
- subjective experiences of emotion are influenced by sensory feedback from facial muscular activity or FACIAL EFFERENCE
11
Q
James-Lange Theory
A
- somatic theory of emotions
- states that emotion is our conscious awareness of our physiological responses to stimuli
- body before thoughts/emotion occurs after the body is aroused
- our body arousal occurs first and then the cognitive awareness and we label the feeling
> example: I’m angry - according to the theory, if something makes us smile, we may then feel happy
- process:
> stranger
> physiological arousal
> emotion: fear
12
Q
Cannon-Bard Theory
A
- simultaneous body response + cognitive experience
- asserts that we have a conscious/cognitive experience of an emotion at the same time as our body is responding, NOT AFTERWARD
- human body responses run PARALLEL to the cognitive responses rather than causing them
- emotions are not only a separate mental experience, when our body responses are blocked, emotions do not feel as intense
- our cognitions influence our emotions in many ways including our interpretations of stimuli
- process:
> stranger
> thalamus relays info
> at the same: physiological arousal and emotion (fear)
13
Q
Schachter-Singer “Two-Factor” Theory
A
- emotion = body + cognitive label
- suggests that emotions do not exist until we add a label to whatever body sensations we are feeling
- the label completes the emotion
- process:
> stranger
> physiological arousal
> label, example: I’m scared”
> emotion: fear
14
Q
What is the spillover effect?
A
- there was a study done by Stanley Schachter + Jerome Singer in 1962
- subjects were aroused when injections of adrenaline were given
- the subjects interpreted their agitation to whatever emotion other people in the room appeared to be feeling
- the emotional label “spilled over” from others
- their feelings were influenced by the emotions other people appeared to be feeling
15
Q
What is the appraisal process?
A
- appraisal means to assess something
- there are 2 questions to ask when facing a possible stressor
> is this a challenge and will I tackle it?
> is it overwhelming and will I give up? - process:
1. stressful event (tough math test)
- appraisal
- threat (yikes! this is beyond me)
> challenge (I’ve got to apply all I know) - response
- stressed to distraction
> aroused, focused
- there are a few conditions that are inherently and universally stressful
- we can often choose our appraisal and our responses
- the exceptions are extreme, chronic physical threats or challenges, such as noise or starvation
15
Q
What is the survival function of emotions?
A
- EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
> emotions are innate, passed through generations b/ they are necessary for survival - BASIC EMOTIONS
> a group of emotions preprogrammed into all humans regardless of culture
15
Q
What is the physiology of emotion?
A
- different emotions do seem to have different underlying patterns of physiological arousal
- anger,fear + sadness all produce higher heart rates compared to happiness, surprise and disgust
- anger produces a much larger increase in finger temperature than any other emotion
16
Q
What is the emotion + survival function for the following?
- threat
- obstacle
- potential mate
- loss of valued person
- sudden novel object
A
threat
E: fear, terror, anxiety
SF: fight, flight
obstacle
E: anger, rage
SF: biting, hitting
potential mate
E: joy, ecstasy, excitement
SF: courtship, mating
loss of valued person
E: sadness, grief
SF: crying for help
sudden novel object
E: surprise
SF: stopping, attending
16
Q
What does facial efference mean?
A
sensory feedback from facial muscular activity
17
Q
What is emotional self-regulation?
A
- harder for boys than for girls
- behaviours and language is important
- positively related to language development
18
Q
What is facial feedback hypothesis?
A
emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify
19
Q
What are complex emotions?
A
- in second year, self-conscious (self-evaluative) emotions emerge: embarrassment, shame, guilt, envy, pride
19
Q
What are the emotional display rules?
A
- suppress and express
- takes time to master
19
Q
What are basic or primary emotions?
A
- present at birth: interest, distress, disgust, contentment
- emerges between 2 and 7 months: anger, sadness, joy, surprise, fear
20
What happens in the brain regarding emotions?
- there is no single structure of the brain linked to each of the 6 basic emotions
- it's actually the activation of the circuitry b/w the structures in addition to the structures themselves that is critical for our conscious experience of an emotion
21
What is the emotional brain?
- the AMYGDALA plays an important role in emotion, it's a threat detector
- APPRAISAL: the evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus
- LEDOUX: fast (thalamus -> amygdala) and slow (thalamus -> cortex -> amygdala) pathways of fear in the brain)
22
How are people able to detect emotions in others?
- EXPRESSIVE BEHAVIOURS:
> people read a great deal of emotional content in the EYES + the FACES
- introverts are better at detecting emotions
- extroverts have emotions that are easier to read
- we are primed to quickly detect negative emotion words + negative emotion words
- those who have been abused are biased toward seeing fearful faces as angry
23
What are detection of emotions based off of?
on context
- the situation
- gestures
- tears
24
What are the 4 features that are more readily observable that seem to distinguish b/w sincere and insincere facial expressions?
- morphology (reliable muscles)
- symmetry
- duration
- temporal patterning
25
What signifies genuine happiness?
the corner crinkle/ crinkle eyes
26
What are good indicators that help detect lies + fakes?
- polygraphs which detect physiological arousal, are NOT useful at correctly identifying when people are lying
- visible signs of lying are...
> decrease in eye blinks
> facial movements change
27
What is positive psychology?
the study + enrichment of...
- positive feelings (happiness, optimism)
- positive traits (perseverance, wisdom)
- positive abilities (interpersonal skills)
- virtues (altruism, tolerance)
28
What is Canada's happiness level on a scale of 0 to 10?
7.4
29
What do happy people tend to be?
- optimistic
- outgoing
- tender-minded
- individuals w/ high self-esteem, spiritual, goal-directed and have a sense of control over their lives
30
What did the longitudinal study say about happy people?
highly optimistic people had a 55% reduced risk of death and a 23% reduced risk of heart problems
31
What is memory?
- the capacity to retain + retrieve info
- the reconstruction of things that have already occurred, it is NOT a recording device that makes exact copies
- w/o memory, we would need care 24/7
- it provides us w/ our identities
32
What is the processes of memory (basics of the 3-stage model)?
ENCODING
- we transform what we perceive, think or feel into an enduring memory
STORAGE
- process of maintaining info in memory over time
RETRIEVAL
- process of bringing into mind info that has previously been encoded and stored
33
What are the 2 theories of how memory works?
1. PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED-PROCESSING MODEL
- info is represented in the brain as a pattern of activation across entire neural networks
2. INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL
- info passes through 3 memory stores during encoding, storage and retrieval
34
Parallel Distributed-Processing (Connectionist) Model
memories are stored in a network of associations throughout our brains
35
Information Processing Model
ANALOGY: information storage in human memory is like the information storage in computers
- it subdivides memory into 3 different stores
> sensory
> short-term
> long-term
PROCESS:
- stimulus from the environment
- sensory memory -> encoding
- working memory -> encoding/ <- retrieval
- long-term memory
36
What is the purpose, duration and capacity for...
- sensory memory
- working memory/ short-term memory
- long-term memory
sensory memory
P: holds sensory info
D: lasts up to half a second for visual, 2-4 seconds for auditory
C: large
working memory
P: holds info temporarily for analysis
D: up to 30 seconds w/o rehearsal
C: limited to 5-9 items
long-term memory
P: relatively permanent storage
D: relatively permanent
C: relatively unlimited
*info not transferred is lost
37
What happens in box 1/sensory memory?
- brief preservation of information in original sensory form
- auditory/echoic + visual/ionic, approximately 1/4 second
- George Sperling (1960): classic experiment on visual sensory store
-
38
What is iconic memory?
a fleeting photographic memory
39
Encoding
- the process of getting information into memory
- the role of attention
- focusing awareness
- selective attention = selection of input
- divided attention
40
What are the types of encoding?
PHONOLOGICAL
- encoding based on sound
VISUAL
- encoding based on how the info looks
- people w/ amazing visual encoding skills have eidetic (photographic) memory
SEMANTIC
- encoding based on the meaning of the information
41
What are the levels of processing?
- incoming info gets processed at different levels:
- shallow processing
> involves structural encoding: emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus
- intermediate processing
> involves phonemic encoding: emphasizes what a word sounds like
- deep processing
> longer lasting memory codes
> involves semantic encoding: emphasizes the meaning of verbal input
- encoding levels:
> visual = shallow = just the letters
> phonemic = intermediate = sounds, reading
> semantic = deep = meaning
42
What is the retention like at the 3 levels of processing?
- the depth of processing increases from structural encoding to phonemic encoding to semantic encoding
- structural, phonemic and semantic encoding involve progressively deeper levels of processing which lead to progressively better retention
43
How is knowledge represented and organized in memory?
- clustering and conceptual hierarchies
- schemas + scripts
- semantic networks
- connectionist networks + PDP models
44
What is organizational encoding?
categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items
45
What is enriching encoding?
- ELABORATION: linking to a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
- VISUAL: creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered
- SELF-REFERENT ENCODING: making info. personally meaningful
46
Short-Term Memory
- DURABILITY OF STORAGE
> about 20 seconds w/o rehearsal
> rehearsal: the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information
- MAINTENANCE VS. ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL
- CAPACITY OF STORAGE
> magical number 7 plus or minus 2 ( 4 plus or minus 1)
> chunking: grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit
- non-sensory info that is held for more than a few seconds.
- phone numbers are chunked for you and used to be only 7 digits
- area codes are easy additions
- it is NOT limited to phonemic encoding
- loss of info is not due to only decay
47
How do you extend short-term memory?
chunking, rehearsal and elaboration
48
What is working memory ?
- active maintenance of information in short-term storage
- a mental workspace that actively and simultaneously processes different types of info and supports other cognitive functions like problem-solving, planning and interacts w/ LTM
- working memory capacity (WMC)
49
What is the difference b/w STM + working memory?
STM
- 3 box model
- 5-9 items
- up to 30 second duration w/o rehearsal
WORKING MEMORY
- temporary storage and manipulates information in short-term storage
1. CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
- monitors + coordinates entire working memory system
- chooses how much attention to give a stimulus + prioritizes info in the phonological loop
> that is, little voice that keeps content in memory by repeating spoken and written info. that needs to be recalled
2. VISUAL SPATIAL SKETCHPAD
- that is, keeps track of spatial information
3. EPISODIC BUFFER
- links information together from other parts of working memory
50
Long-term memory
- storage that holds info for hours, days, weeks or years - no known capacity
- flashbulb memories
- are STM and LTM really different?
> phonemic vs. semantic encoding
> decay vs. interference-based forgetting
51
What is long-term potentiation?
- main neural mechanism by which a memory is stored in the brain
- during LTP, dendrites grow and branch out and certain synapses increase in number
- changes take time so LTM's remain vulnerable b/ they are undergoing consolidation/stabilization which can take years
52
What are the systems and types of memory?
- implicit vs. explicit
- declarative vs. non-declarative (procedural)
- semantic vs. episodic
- prospective vs. retrospective
53
What are the types of long-term memory?
- classically conditioned memory
- episodic memory
- explicit memory
- implicit memory
- procedural memory
- priming
- semantic memory
54
Explicit memory
Semantic memory
Episodic memory
- types of long-term memory
**EM**: memory w/ conscious recall
**SM**: facts + general knowledge (12 months in a year, spiders have 8 legs)
**EPM**: personal experiences and events (high school graduation, birth of first child)
55
Implicit memory
Procedural memory
Classically conditioned memory
Priming
- types of long-term memory
**IM**: memory w/o conscious recall
**PM**: motor skills + habits (how to drive a car, brush your teeth)
**CCM**: conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli (phobias, some aspects of prejudice)
**P**: earlier exposure facilitates retrieval (heightened fears after reading a scary novel)
56
Declarative memory system
encompasses factual info + explicit memories
57
Non-declarative /procedural memory system
encompasses actions, perceptual motor skills, conditioned reflexes and implicit memories
- example: riding a bike
58
Retrieval/ how do we get information out of memory?
- using cues to aid retrieval
- the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
>a failure in retrieval
> retrieval cues
**- reinstating the context of an event**
> context cues
**- reconstructing memories**
> misinformation effect
> source monitoring, reality monitoring
**- information is sometimes available in memory even when it is NOT accessible**
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Retrieval cues
external information that helps bring stored information to mind
60
Encoding specificity principle
idea that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps recreate the specific way in which info was initially encoded
61
State dependent retrieval
tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same mental or physical state during encoding + retrieval
62
Transfer/context-dependent processing
memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding context of the situations match
63
What is required for the activation of information in LTM ?
- retrieval
- multiple, self-generated cues maximize recall
- generating your own association
> 3 associations is better than 1
> 3 associations can generate high rates of recall
64
Why do we forget?
- ineffective encoding
- decay
- interference
> proactive
> retroactive
65
Proactive Interference
- situations in which info is learned earlier impairs memory for information acquired later
- old info like your friend's old email address interferes with your ability to remember her new work email address
66
Retroactive Interference
- situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later
- the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
- learning a new password for a new bank card can disrupt recall of the password for your existing bank card
67
Misinformation Effect: suggestibilty
- incorporating misleading information into the memory of an event
- "how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?"
68
Retrograde amnesia vs. anterograde amnesia
retrograde: memory for events that occured prior to the onset of amnesia is lost
anterograde: memory for events that occur subsequent to the onset of amnesia suffers
69
neural circuitry
- localized neural circuits
- reusable pathways in the brain (neurogenesis)
- long-term potentiation
70
anatomy
- anterograde + retrograde amnesia
- cerebral cortex
- prefrontal cortex
- hippocampus
- consolidation
71
What revealed that there were different kinds of memory dependent on different parts of the brain?
HM would be able to practice a task and not recall he had and do the task very well but not know why.
- he could unconsciously remember a motor skill but not a fact or event
- HM has...
> motor memory
> some spatial memory
> some long term memory
but NO...
> declarative memory
> episodic memory
72
How do you improve everyday memory?
- engage in adequate rehearsal
- distribute practice + minimize interference
- engage in deep processing + transfer-appropriate processing
- organize information
- use verbal mnemonics
- use visual mnemonics
