Exam No. 2 Flashcards
Errors in Research/Reasoning:
Overgeneralization: Occurs when we unjustifiably conclude that what is true for some cases is true for all cases. Selective or Inaccurate Observation: Choosing to look only at things that are in line with our preferences or beliefs. Illogical Reasoning: The premature jumping to conclusions or arguing on the basis of invalid assumptions. Resistance to Change: The reluctance to change our ideas in light of new information.
Methods That Social Science Avoids These Errors:
Systematic Procedures - Reduce likelihood of overgeneralization by using systematic procedures for selecting individuals or groups to study. Study subjects are representative of the individuals or groups we want to generalize. Selective of Inaccurate Observation Error Method - To Avoid: Measure and sample phenomena systematically. Illogical Reasoning Error Method - Use explicit criteria is used by identifying causes and for determining whether these criteria are met in particular instances. Resistance to Change Error Method - Use of scientific method(s) to lessen the tendency to answer questions about the social world from ego-based commitments, excessive devotion to tradition, or unquestioning respect for authority
Goals of Research
The four most important goals of social research are (1) description, (2) exploration, (3) explanation, and (4) evaluation.
The Four Goals of Research
(1) Description: Research in which social phenomena are defined and described. The findings simply describe difference or variations in social phenomena. (2) Exploration: Seeks to find out how people get along in the setting under questions, what meanings they give to their actions, and what issues concern them. The goal is to learn “what’s going on here?” (3) Explanation: Seeks to identify causes and effects of social phenomena and to predict how one phenomenon will change or vary in response to variation in another phenomenon. Social scientists want to explain social phenomena, usually by identifying cause and effect. To predict how one phenomenon will change or vary in response to variation in another phenomenon. Evaluation: Describes or identifies the impact of social policies and programs
Research Process
Research Strategy: When conducting social research, we try to connect theory with empirical data—the evidence we obtain from the real world. Researchers may make this connection in one of two ways;
Research Circle
A diagram of the elements of the research process, including theories, hypotheses, data collection, and data analysis
Deductive Research
The type of research in which a specific expectation is deduced from a general premise and is then tested
Inductive Research
The type of research in which general conclusions are drawn from specific data Inductive Research: Begins with specific data, which is then used to develop (induce) a theory to explain the data. Rather than starting at the top of the circle with a theory, the inductive researcher starts at the bottom of the circle with data and then moves up to a theory
Anomalous
Patters that don’t seem to fit the theory.
Serendipitous
Unexpected patterns in data, which stimulate new ideas or theoretical approaches
Qualitative Research is often
inductive—the researcher observes a social interaction or interviews social actors in depth, and then develops an explanation for what has been found.
Descriptive Research:
Starts with data and proceeds only to the stage of making empirical generalizations; it does not generate entire theories. Valid description is critical in all research. Good description of data is the cornerstone for the scientific research process and an essential component of understanding the social world.
Social scientists evaluate their research questions in terms of three criteria:
(1) feasibility given the time and resources available, (2) social importance, and (3) scientific relevance.
Theory:
A logically interrelated set of propositions about empirical reality i.e., the social world as it actually exists
Hypothesis:
A tentative statement about empirical reality involving a relationship between two or more variables. States a relationship between two or more variables—characteristics or properties that can vary, or change.
Variable:
A characteristic or property that can vary (take on different values or attributes).
Dependent Variable:
A variable that is hypothesized to vary depending on or under the influence of another variable. The variable that depends on another, at least partially, for its level. The predicted result in a hypothesis.
Independent Variable:
A variable that is hypothesized to cause, or lead to, variation in another variable. The independent variable is the hypothesized cause.
Direction of Association:
A pattern in a relationship between two variables—that is, the value of a variable tends to change consistently in relation to change in the other variable. The direction of association can be either positive or negative.
Cross-Sectional Designs:
A study in which data is collected at only one point in time. Cross-sectional designs suffer because they use data collected only at one time.
Longitudinal Designs:
A study in which data is collected that can be ordered in time; also defined as research in which data is collected at two or more points in time.
Approximating Longitudinal Designs:
Better estimate cause and effect
Retrospective Research:
Gathers information about the past
Trend (repeated cross-sectional design):
A longitudinal study in which data is collected at two or more points in time from different samples of the same population
Cohort Study Design:
Individuals or groups with a common starting point. A longitudinal study in which data are collected at two or more points in time from individuals in a cohort.
Panel Study:
A longitudinal study in which data is collected form the same individuals—the panel—at two or more points in time. Uses a single sample that is studied at multiple points across time. The same people will be asked questions on multiple occasions. A panel design allows us to determine how individuals change, as well as how the population as a whole has changed.
Units of Analysis:
The entities being studied, whose behavior is to be understood.
Units of Analysis - Individuals:
A unit of analysis in which individuals are the source of data and the focus of conclusions
Units of Analysis - Groups/Organizations:
A unit of analysis in which groups are the source of data and the focus of conclusions
Social Artifacts.
Product of social beings. Cultural artifacts are all the things that are created by humans, including the built environment, furniture, technological devices, clothing, art and music, advertising and language–the list is truly endless.
Casual Fallacies:
Errors related to unit of analysis.
Ecological Fallacy:
An error in reasoning in which conclusions about individual-level processes are drawn from group-level data. A group-level finding from data is used to draw (erroneous) conclusions about individuals.
Reductionist Fallacy (reductionism):
An error in reasoning that occurs when incorrect conclusions about group-level processes are based on individual-level data.
Ethical Guidelines:
No Harm to Participants: Balance potential benefits of research v. possible harm to subjects. Voluntary Participation: Subjects should be free to participate. Anonymity and Confidentiality: Anonymity: Researcher does not identify/associate information about the subject. Confidentiality: Researcher can link information to a subject/person, but promises not to do so. Deceiving Subjects: Usually unethical unless justified by compelling scientific or administrative consent. Analysis and Reporting: Ethical obligations to the scientific community. Withholding Desirable Treatment: Fairness in the distributions of the treatments.
