exam mot and emo Flashcards
Motivation is influenced by:
Reinforcers and Punishers
Based in the past
Positive and Negative Incentives
Feature of the environment that pulls or repels
Reinforcers:
Stimuli select appropriate behaviors and make them more likely to occur
Punishers:
Select against behaviors and make them less likely to occur
Incentives are based in the
anticipation of future events
Positive Incentive:
Negative Incentive:
Motivates behavior that is necessary for attaining incentive
negative- Motivates avoidance behaviors that is necessary for preventing an incentive
Objective and Subjective Incentive Value
Degree incentive motivates behavior depends on its incentive value
Incentive Value:
Attractiveness of an incentives based on objective properties of incentive
Number, amount
Incentive Utility:
Subjective value; usefulness of an incentive to produce satisfaction or pleasure
Fechner’s Law:
As objective incentive value increases, subjective value or utility increases, but in smaller and smaller amounts
Can you tell the difference between coffee with no sugar vs one sugar?
What about coffee with 8 vs coffee with 9 sugars?
Positive and Negative Incentives
Negative incentives can be more motivating than positive incentives
Bad is stronger than good
Negative outcomes are felt more intensely than positive outcomes
Losing a game vs winning
Negative evaluations of a person are more impactful than positive ones
Negative moods are more intense than positive moods
We search environment for negative stimuli over positive stimuli
Prospect Theory
Views positive incentives as gains and negative incentives as losses
Suggests that psychological impact of loss is stronger than impact of a gain
Value Function Curve:
Demonstrates relationships between objective losses/gains and intensity of corresponding psychological reaction
Generally, incentive size/amount is xxxxxxx associated with motivation
positively
Increase in pay motivates increased work performance
Some exceptions
○ Too small of an incentive might be worse than no incentive
○ Large incentives may decrease motivation for complex tasks
hot vs cold states
Value of an incentive can change with our internal states
Hot States:
Result of deprivations
Hungry; Thirsty
Cold States:
Result of satiation
Full; Hydrated
Value of an incentive depends on current needs, even when those needs may change
Taking water on a hike; Grocery shopping when hungry
Rate of Reinforcement
Frequency of an incentive or reinforcer influence motivation
More frequent rewards lead to an increase in motivated behavior
Loyalty punch cards
Melioration:
A shift towards behavior that provides a greater rate of reinforcement
Ex.
Laundry gets more points than dishes
Incentive contrast:
A change in psychological value of an incentive based on value of prior similar incentives
Positive Incentive Contrast
Upward shift in incentive value
Negative Incentive Contrast
Downward shift in incentive value
Antique roadshow
Law of hedonic contrast:
the pleasure of a stimulus depends on what it is
being compared to
Contrast Effects Depend on….
How incentives are categorized
Comparing amateur art to professional art
Expectations
a “B” grade from perspective of an A student vs a C student
Value of Effort/Behavior
Winning a game of chess against a child vs a chess master
Temporal Motivation Theory
Incentive utility decreases with delay
Temporal Motivation Theory:
Usefulness of an incentive depends on expected value of incentive and length of delay before it becomes available
Delay Discounting:
Future incentive is less valuable because of delay before getting it
Later incentives occur, lower value in present
As incentive approaches, value increases
Preference Reversal:
Change from preference for a delayed large reward to an immediate smaller reward
Procrastination
“A voluntary delay in intended course of action despite expecting to be worse off for the delay”
Incentive utility is lower than that of other incentives
More likely when:
Task has lower incentive value
Alternative activities have greater value
Extrinsic Motivation VS Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation:
Comes from external sources
Money; Good grades
Intrinsic Motivation:
Comes from within, is inherent in activity being performed, is freely chosen
Experiencing an activity for its own sake, studying because you find material interesting
Can an activity performed for extrinsic reasons
become intrinsically motivated?
● Functional autonomy of motives:
Concept that a behavior that began for extrinsic reasons can later be performed for its own sake (intrinsic)
I started teaching/tutoring for extra income (extrinsic), now I do it because I enjoy it (intrinsic)
People are Intrinsically Motivated to…
- Satisfy curiosity
Curiosity gives us motivation to learn about environment
Curiosity occurs when our current knowledge falls short of our desired knowledge
Curiosity makes information more valuable
Take greater risks to satisfy curiosity - Have an effect on their environment
Effectance Motivation:
Motive to actively interact and control one’s environment
Serves to develop competence
Can be seen in child’s play - Engage in activities we are good at
Activities that are too simple to result in boredom
Activities that are too difficult to result in stress
Flow:
Desirable state when completely involved in an activity that matches our skills
Activity captures all attention
Time, fatigue, other responsibilities are disregarded
Interaction between Extrinsic and Intrinsic
Motivation
Extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsically motivated behavior
Called “Overjustification Effect” by Lepper et al. (1973)
“Undermining Effect” by Murayama et al. (2010)
Modern research on phenomenon shows that:
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation influence behavior simultaneously
Extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic interest
Extrinsic rewards facilitates performance
Ex.
Making key chains for fun vs profit
Interaction Between Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation can influence different outcomes of a behavior
Extrinsic motivation increases quantity of work
Intrinsic motivation increases quality of work
Cognitive Evaluation Theory:
Explanation for interaction between extrinsic reward and intrinsic motivation
Suggest we evaluate our reasons for behavior
If reason is external, intrinsic interest declines
Motivational Orientation:
Variable that captures individual differences in general tendencies to be driven by intrinsic or extrinsic motivation
Study of West Point Cadets
Cadets indicated reasons for interest in Academy upon entrance
Those who were more motivated by intrinsic sources were more likely to:
Be commissioned
Remain in Army
Receive consideration for early promotion
Mindset Theory of Action:
Suggests that there are two phases to goal identification
First Phase: consider possible end states and commit to a goal
Second Phase: identify behaviors that are available for working towards goal
Future outcomes do not become goals until we commit to them
Positive and Negative Goals:
A positive goal in present is something to approach
A negative goal in present is something to avoid
Due to delay discounting…
Approach tendency is stronger when goals are far away
Avoidance tendency is stronger as goals get nearer
You set a goal to run a marathon tomorrow vs 6 months from now
Level of aspiration
A person’s desire to excel, do better next time, do better than others
Part of human nature
Self Concept and Future Possible Selves
Meetings goals helps us achieve desirable possible selves and avoid negative possible selves
Affective Forecasting:
Prediction of future emotions
We set goals that we anticipate will bring us pleasure and help us avoid pain
Goals associated with positive affect and approach motivation are judged to be more likely
Likelihood of getting married or earning a promotion vs Likelihood of divorce or heart attack
Satisfying Physiological Needs
Experiencing hunger results in goal to obtain food
Alliesthesia determines what feels good and becomes goal
Satisfying Psychological Needs
Getting into grad school would help meet achievement needs, becomes a goal
Self-Efficacy:
A person’s belief about how capable they are of performing a behavior necessary to achieve goal
Task specific
Environmental Activation
Stimuli from our environment can activate goals
Can require conditioning or effort
Cake reminds you of your moms upcoming birthday
Sources of Goals
Other People
Role Models
Inspire is and demonstrate what needs to be done to achieve goals
Social Comparison
Goals depend on who we are comparing ourselves to
Crossfit Games athletes vs Normal People
Relationship Demands
People place demands on each other that determine their goals
Professors and students
Players and team
Parents and children
Goal Level
Rank of a goal in hierarchy of potential goals
Higher level goals typically have greater utility and provide greater benefits
Typically more difficult
Goal Difficulty:
How hard it is to achieve
Ex.
High School vs College vs Grad School
Goal Specificity
Degree to which goal is precisely defined
More specific goal is, easier is it to know if been achieved
Increases planning and efforts to achieve progress
Goals are more successful and motivating when they are high level and specific
Goal level positively associated with greater performance
Energizing Function:
Motivates a person to expend effort
Goal specificity is negatively associated with variability in performance
Directing Function:
Defines what behavior is acceptable for goal achievement
Expected Utility Theory
Goal selection depends on expected utility (EU)
Utility:
Usefulness of goal in satisfying desires, providing satisfaction
Subjective Probability:
Belief that you will achieve goal
Framing
Framing:
Whether goal is viewed as an opportunity for a gain or a loss
We prefer…
Gains that have a higher likelihood of success, even if small
Losses that have a lower likelihood of occurring, even if large
Expected Utility Theory ignores Framing but framing matters
We know it matters because of Prospect Theory
Psychological impact of a loss is stronger than the psychological impact of a gain, therefore our decisions depend on how likely something is but also on how its framed
Prospect Theory
Prospect Theory:
Psychological impact of a loss is greater than impact of a gain
Goal decisions depend on…
Risk Aversion:
Applies to gains; in choice between two gains, more likely is preferred
Risk Seeking:
Applies to losses; in a choice between two losses, the risker (less likely alternative) is preferred
Goal commitment increased by
public commitment
Making a pledge; Accountability groups
People who are more committed to their goals are more likely to demonstrate goal shielding:
Prevent other goals or non-goal behaviors from interfering with current goal
Planning to Achieve a Goal
Lead to faster goal attainment by…
Increasing sensitively to goal cues
Increasing readiness to react with goal achievement behaviors
Progress Toward Goal Achievement
Feedback:
An essential part of goal achievement
Without feedback, goal achievement would not be possible
To-Go Perspective:
How much further do I have to go before I complete my goal?
Uses consummatory behaviors (ending) as reference point
Motivation increases as with progress towards goal
Ex. Seeing the finish line
To-Date Perspective:
How much have I already done to achieve my goal?
Uses starting point as a reference point
Motivation decreases with progress towards goal
Ex. Senioritis
Subgoals:
intermediate goals (proximal goals) that must be achieved on way toward achieving final goal (distal goal)
Benefits of Subgoals:
1. Provide a more immediate source of motivation
2. Serve as feedback about progress towards final goal
3. Provides information as to whether achievement behaviors should be modified
4. Increase self-efficacy
Activating Goal Achievement Behavior
- Selfish Goal Hypothesis:
Goals are “concerned” with self-survival (being achieved); goal focuses our attention on relevant behaviors at expense of other goals - Perception-Behavior Link:
Goals and achievement behaviors are associated due to past; achievement behaviors are activated when goal is encountered - Motivated Preparation:
Goals are inherently positive or negative, which motivates approach or avoidance behaviors, respectively
Goal Achievement and Failure
Achievement Valence:
Satisfaction a person receives from their goal
As goal difficulty increases…
Achievement becomes less likely
Satisfaction from achievement increases
Goals change due to success and failure
Following success, people are typically raise their goals
Following failure, people typically lower their goals
Goal editing also depends on self-efficacy
People with higher self-efficacy are more likely to raise goals
People with lower self-efficacy are more likely to lower goals
Even if previously been successful
