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Animal Behavior > Exam II > Flashcards

Exam II Flashcards

1
Q

Ultrasound

A

frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing
bats use high-frequency cries to listen for weak ultrasonic echoes reflected back from objects in their flight path

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2
Q

Infrasound

A

sound waves with frequencies below the lower limit of human audibility

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3
Q

Camera eye

A

like human, with lens for focus

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4
Q

Pinhole Eye

A 
Pinhole 
– no lens    
- uses small hole to  control light  
 – no focus control
greater field of vision
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5
Q

Brainstem

A

Brainstem breathing, temperature control hormone control, initial sensory info

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6
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

large forebrain, sensory processing, initiating movement, cognition, emotion, reasoning

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7
Q

Neurons

A

a specialized cell transmitting nerve impulses; a nerve cell.

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8
Q

Glia

A

non-electrically active brain cells

support neurons structurally and chemically

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9
Q

Motor Neurons

A

sends commands to muscle fibers

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10
Q

Sensory Neurons

A

sensory neural systems encode, organize and decode information from the environment

processes sensory info(light, pressure, sounds)

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11
Q

Neuron Communication

A

x

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12
Q

Motor Unit

A

Motor unit – one motor neuron and the muscle fibers that it innervates

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13
Q

Myelin

A

Myelin – glia that wrap around axons, speed action potential travel

Myelin is most dense in somatosensory and motor cortex

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14
Q

Motor Program

A

Motor Program – stereotyped sequence of motor behaviors to accomplish one overall behavior - automatic in quality and is critical to survival (e.g. Tritonia escape swimming)

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15
Q

Cortical Magnification/Hypertrophy

A

Brain Hypertrophy – increase in size of specific regions of the brain due to an extraordinary sensory or motor capacity
Also called “expanded representation” or “magnification”

ex: star-nosed mole

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16
Q

Phonotaxis

A

Phonotaxis = orienting based on acoustic cue

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17
Q

Reactive steering

A

Reactive Steering: movements right or left in response to an orienting stimulus

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18
Q

Sensory and Motor Cortex

A

Sensory and motor cortex Somatosensory and motor cortex are organized by body part. Myelin is most dense in somatosensory and motor cortex

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19
Q

Cortical Magnification

A

Cortical magnification describes how many neurons in an area of the visual cortex are ‘responsible’ for processing a stimulus of a given size, as a function of visual field location.

see ex. Neuro 2

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20
Q

Command Neuron

A

Command neurons: single or small group of interneurons that are both necessary and sufficient to initiate stereoptyped motor pattern

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21
Q

CNS/PNS

A

CNS: brain and spinal cord
sensation, perception, cognition, reasoning, emotion, motor

PNS: nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord
nerves - receptors, sensory, motor
carry info to and from brain

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22
Q

Motor Program

A

A motor program is an abstract representation of movement that centrally organizes and controls the many degrees of freedom involved in performing an action

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23
Q

Central Pattern Generator

A

A group of cells in the CNS that produce a particular pattern of signals necessary for a functional behavioral response

the neural clusters in a central pattern generator play a preprogrammed set of messages that help organize the motor output of a FAP

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24
Q

Phase Locking

A

fish midman; female becomes more sensitive to the harmonics of male hum by phase locking to them

locking to wave forms, helps reception
distance of curve

T and E2 treated fish show higher VS to higher frequencies than do controls

The hormone-induced increase in VS to higher frequencies matches the harmonics of the male’s mating hum.

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25
Q

Circadian Rhythm

A

Behaviors cycle throughout the day/night

e.g. sleep, eat, hunt, lay eggs

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26
Q

Photoperiod

A

number of hours of light in a 24-hr period

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27
Q

Free-running

A

Free-running cycle: A cycle of activity that is not matched to environmental cues; environment-independent internal circadian rhythm; in a lab that is bright 24 hrs, crickets sound at roughly the same time each day

when light mirrors outside, crickets learn to anticipate this and sound ~2 hrs before lights turn off

–> COMPLETE CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CRICKET CALLING HAS BOTH AN ENVIRONMENT-INDEPENDENT TIMER (biological clock/free-running cycle) & AN ENVIRONMENT-ACTIVATED ENTRAINMENT DEVICE THAT SYNCHRONIZES THE CLOCK WITH LOCAL LIGHT CONDITIONS

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28
Q

Entrainment

A

Entrainment is the synchronization or alignment of the internal biological clock rhythm, including its phase and period, to external time cues, such as the natural dark-light cycle.

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29
Q

Circannual Rhythm

A

Behaviors cycle through the year

e.g. mate, breed, raise young, migrate, hibernate

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30
Q

Hypothalamus

A

controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic systems, and involved in sleep and emotional activity.

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31
Q

SCN

A

suprachiasmatic nucleus: hypothalamic neural clusters that receive inputs from nerves originating in the retina

–> likely secures info about day and night length, that adjust biological clock

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32
Q

Evolutionary arms race

A

the antagonistic reciprocal coevolution of genes, physiology, and behavior between:

  1. predator and prey
    read Alcock for bat and moth
    garter snake and rough skinned newt
  2. parasite and host
    wasp and cockroach
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33
Q

Brood parasitism

A

Brood parasites are organisms that rely on others to raise their young

ex: wasp/cockroach

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34
Q

Sympatric

A

Sympatric – species sharing the same geographic regions

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35
Q

Allopatric

A

Allopatric – species that do not share the same geographic regions

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36
Q

Game Theory

A

Evolutionary game theory (EGT) is the application of game theory to evolving populations in biology. It defines a framework of contests, strategies, and analytics into which Darwinian competition can be modelled

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37
Q

Crypsis

A

avoid observation by other animals
camo, mimicry
ex: peppered moth

Blue jays can be operantly conditioned to detect cryptic moths – improved detection with experience if one type

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38
Q

Warning Coloration

A

monarch butterfly

conspicuous coloring that warns a predator that an animal is unpalatable or poisonous.

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39
Q

TTX

A

Rough skinned newt – Pacific aquatic newt, one of the most toxic animals ever identified
Can kill person within hours

Highly toxic to snakes, other amphibians, mammals and birds; One predator has evolved the resistance to newt TTX

Garter snakes can eat rough skinned newt without adverse effects

Tetrodatoxin (TTX) secreted and spread on the skin
Blocks sodium channels and pre-vents action potentials, destroys nervous function

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40
Q

Optimal Foraging Theory

A

The acquisition, consumption, and metabolism offood such that energy gained is maximized and energy spent is minimized

In OPTIMALITY THEORY, the key variables are:

a. decisions: selecting a behavioral option
b. currency: what is being maximized (e.g., energy intake)
c. constraints: structural and behavioral limits of animals (e.g., bill size / shape; mouth, teeth, tongue, stomach, digestive physiology, energy stores . . . )

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41
Q

Optimal Diet

A

maximizes energy gain
Profitability = net energy gain/handling time

Redshank shorebirds forage for worms
Will eat worms of different sizes
But when large worms are abundant, will only eat them

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42
Q

Filter Feeding

A

Filter feeding: straining food from surrounding water. plankton, krill

  1. evolved separately in many aquatic animals
  2. an ancient feeding method
  3. Allows for massive body size
    low cost
    high yield
    reliable availability
    size helps and doesn’t harm
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43
Q

Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)

A

Evolutionarily Stable Strategy: strategy which if adopted by a population cannot be invaded by any competing alternative strategy

ex: Gull Mobbing: Between the 2 extremes there is an equilibrium – trade-off between % cautious and % daring in the population ratio = Evolutionarily Stable Strategy
ex: Bluegill Sunfish- Two types of males – guarder, sneaker/female mimic

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44
Q

Behavioral Ecology

A

the study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressures

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45
Q

Internal Maps

A

Finally, some animals may use a cognitive map to navigate. A cognitive map involves a mental map-like representation of the environment. Though controversial and difficult to demonstrate, honey bees show some evidence of using cognitive maps; when they are physically displaced to a new foraging location, they return home via a direct route. That is, they take a shortcut, suggesting that they possess a cognitive map of their territory

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46
Q

Kinesis

A

movement/motion

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47
Q

Taxis

A

the movement of an organism in response to a stimulus such as light or the presence of food. Taxes are innate behavioural responses.

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48
Q

Piloting

A

Other species use landmarks to guide their movement. Animals can learn the relationships among landmarks such as rocks, trees, or other large objects to triangulate their position. Landmarks are often the primary cues that animals use to locate their nests.

digger wasps were unable to locate their nest entrances after he moved the landmarks surrounding the nests

For example, after digger wasps leave their nests they circle around the entrance to orient themselves to local landmarks. When the landmarks are moved several centimetres away, the returning wasps land where the nest entrance should be relative to the landmarks and have difficulty finding their nests

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49
Q

Compass Orientation

A

Many animals are able to navigate using the Sun as a compass.
eg pigeon, butterfly

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50
Q

Dead Reckoning

A

Dead reckoning involves estimating the distance and direction one has traveled. For instance, desert ants (Cataglyphis spp.) track how far away and in what direction they have traveled from home in order to return home after searching for food

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51
Q

“True” Navigation

A

Animals are capable of true navigation if, after displacement to a location where they have never been, they can determine their position relative to a goal without relying on familiar surroundings, cues that emanate from the destination, or information collected during the outward journey.

vectors

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52
Q

Aposematic Coloration

A

honest communication

Aposematic coloration - conspicuous coloring to honestly warn potential predators of danger or distaste

poison dart frog

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53
Q

Badges

A

Badges – specific visual characteristics that indicate identity (species, sex) or behavioral condition

Male anoles lizard dewlap
Male damselfly

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54
Q

Carotenoids

A

Carotenoids - pigments in plants, algae, and bacteria - color (red/orange) parts of animals made of keratin

Cannot be synthesized

Must be obtained through diet – hard to get food items

Honest visual signal communicating ability to acquire resources?

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55
Q

Pheremones

A

Pheromones – chemical messages meant to convey information to members of the same species

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56
Q

Vomeronasal Organ

A

Detected by the vomeronasal organ – separate from the olfactory system – located in roof of the mouth

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57
Q

Flehman

A

Flehmen – “grimace”behavior that facilitates draw of pheromone to vomeronasal organ

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58
Q

Sensory Exploitation

A

when a sender exploits the pre-existing perceptual biases of a receiver, often originally involved in a different behavior

watermite, copepod vibration

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59
Q

Communication

A

the process by which senders use specially designed signals or displays to modify the behavior of receivers

effect: Change in behavior based on information transmitted (S->R)
Change in fitness based on information transmitted (R->S)

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60
Q

Signal Modalities

A 
Signal Modalities (channels):
acoustic
visual
tactile
chemical
vibrational
electrical

(intent: provide information)

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61
Q

Play Markers

A

Play markers – signals that indicate a lack of aggression/play

Dogs use play bows to indicate lack of aggression/play
Social hierarchy
Cooperation
Threat
Sensory/motor control
62
Q

Honest Communication

A

“true” signal – raises the fitness of both sender and receiver

e.g. warning coloration, baring teeth, mating displays

Sender only spends effort/risk etc to produce signal if it has a high probability of altering the behavior of the receiver to improve sender’s fitness (survival reproduction)

ex: Aposematic coloration (poison frog)

63
Q

Dishonest Communication

A

Dishonest Communication – untrue signal conveyed; lowers the fitness of either sender or receiver

  1. – wrong receiver costs sender

Eavesdropping – signal is intercepted by the “wrong”receiver – could be used against sender or intended receiver – e.g. predator hears mating call and locates

  1. – deception could cost receiver

Deceit – signal does not convey correct information - may convey false information that benefits sender’

ex: pied flycatchers – males mate with more than one, females gain from mating with only one

Males may deceive femalesFemales assess whether male is mated - if he is alone on a territory during her repeated visits, then he is probably unmatedBy repeated sampling of male behavior, females are able to avoid mating with previously mated males

whine, chuck

Sensory bias – perceptual/processing preference for certain stimuli

Females of species with male chuck and without male chuck have same audiogram and prefer chuck

Sensory tuning evolved before the chuck

drawback..male tungara frog and fringe-lipped bat
Classic eavesdropping– dishonest communication (fitness of the frog is decreased) – the chuck makes the male frog easy to locate as a prey item

• Harmless species may mimic a toxic species – Batesian Mimicry• The sender increases fitness and the receiver decreases fitness (e.g. does not eat harmless butterfly) (viceroy butterfly + monarch)

64
Q

Sensory Bias

A

Sensory bias – perceptual/processing preference for certain stimuli

65
Q

Eavesdropping

A

drawback..male tungara frog and fringe-lipped bat
Classic eavesdropping– dishonest communication (fitness of the frog is decreased) – the chuck makes the male frog easy to locate as a prey item

66
Q

Deceit

A

transmission of misinformation by one animal to another, of the same or different species, in a way that propagates beliefs that are not true

ex. mimicry and camoflauge

67
Q

Forced Honesty

A

“forced honesty” – deceit is impossible

Physical constraints on deceit

  • deceit physically impossible
  • direct material link between signal and some underlying aspect of the sender’s state or condition

Strategic constraints on deceit
- ‘handicap principle’ : signal is costly, only superior individuals gain net benefit from high signal values

68
Q

Unforced Honesty

A
  1. Unforced honesty- fitness interests of sender & receiver coincide, sender is honest, no problem for receiver/receiver benefits

Waggle dance in honeybees

69
Q

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

A

major histocompatibility complex (MHC); physical constraint on deceit

  • highly polymorphic genes
  • control immunological self/non-self recognition
  • more diverse = stronger immune system

Females of some species seek males based on their MHC genotype

Females prefer to mate with males with dissimilar MHC haplotypes (set of genes that are inherited together)

House mice example, humans/birth control

In both mice and humans, females choose males with different MHCs

MHC is communicated by sender (male) through chemical channel (odors) to receiver (female) - mate choice is directed by MHC composition

This choice depends on the female’s hormonal condition

Honest signal of fitness – maximizes immune system of offspring/avoids inbreeding

70
Q

Intention Movements

A

Preparatory movements becomeshow intention

ex: wolves bare teeth before biting

71
Q

Ritualization

A

evolutionary modification of movements and structures to improve their signal function – stabilization of the behavior, its meaning, its reception

intention movement –> ritualization

  1. increased detectability
  2. decreased ambiguity

Some animal activities have become ritualized over the course of evolution so that they now serve a communicative function. Protective reflexes, for example, such as narrowing the eyes and flattening the ears prepare an animal in danger to protect sense organs. These movements also may indicate fear or anger to other animals. Intention movements such as these are incomplete behavior patterns that provide information about the activity a particular animal is about to perform.

a dog who is preparing to bite retracts his lips into the familiar growl snarl. This particular behavior began so that the dog does not bite his own lips as he bites. However at some point in evolutionary history, the receiver noticed that the snarling dog presented a danger to him. The signaling dog now notices the receiver often backs down before the fight even begins, and continues retracting his lips as a way to ward off the receiver

72
Q

“True” Language

A

True Language - symbols, sounds, meanings and rules for their combination that constitutes the primary mode of communication

e.g. humans

73
Q

Motherese

A

Studies have found that infants appear to detect such things as syllable and phrase boundaries better when hearing motherese, and that infants spoken to with motherese appear to be better at identifying differences between consonants.

better communicate sounds

hyperarticulation, high in pitch, with many glissando variations that are more pronounced than those of normal speech

74
Q

Optimal diet ex

A

Crows crack open and eat walnuts

  • # of times nut is dropped increases likelihood of breaking open
  • Crow adjusts height of drop depending on # of times dropped
  • Minimizes energy spent flying
  • Minimizes chance of nut being stolen
  • efficient strategy
75
Q

Cooperation

A

working together to acquire resources

  1. Social Insects - communicate with nestmates to enhance their foraging - methods include waggle dance in honeybees
  2. Other group living animals - inform others of food sources and work together to form traps/ chase down prey – killer whales/bubble nets; Osprey inform each other

Can take prey larger than individual predators**wolves cooperatively hunt and take down moose

76
Q

Optimal Foraging equation

A

energy profit/handling time

77
Q

Constraints on Optimal Foraging

A
  1. Predation – energy gain must be balanced with risk
    - Feed less often
    - Feed in safer places
    ex: Chacma baboons avoid woodlands where food is most abundant but predation risk is highest (leopards)
  2. Competition – spending energy depending on chances of losing it to another animal
    - Salmon are less likely to give a longchase to prey in higher density populations; Longer chase - more likely to lose prey to competitor
78
Q

Honeybee round dance/waggle dance

A

Foragers indicate a close by food source using the round dance
Honey bees forage for nectar and pollen, encode source locations and communicate location to hivemates

Foragers indicate a source more than 50 m away using the waggle dance
Distance is indicated by rate of full waggle circuit or duration of waggle run
Direction is orientation of loops and angle of waggle
Up comb = toward sun
Down comb = away from sun
Angle of waggle tells angle of food with reference to hive and sun
Waggle 20 degrees to right of vertical = food 20 degrees to right of sun

79
Q

Economics of Behavior

A

Behavior is a trade off between costs and benefits

Costs:

  • feeding
  • attracting mates
  • danger
  • defense
  • raising young

Benefits:

  • survival
  • health
  • nutrients/ energy in reproductive success
80
Q

Optimal Behavior

A

benefits must outweigh the costs

81
Q

Gull mobbing

A 
Benefit = mobbing minimizes loss of young
Cost = risk of injury, energy output, risk of leaving young

There are cautious and daring mobbers

Daring = starting/leading the mob
Cautious = small disruption

Optimal mobbing distance = 4 m

82
Q

Gull mobbing

A 
Benefit = mobbing minimizes loss of young
Cost = risk of injury, energy output, risk of leaving young

There are cautious and daring mobbers

Daring = starting/leading the mob
Cautious = small disruption

Optimal mobbing distance = 4 m

83
Q

Variability of costs/benefits

A
  • Costs and Benefits are not the same for all individuals

* Costs and Benefits are not the same in every habitat or context

84
Q

Short-term v. Long-term Optimability

A

ST Optimability - Focus on immediate solution to problem in absence of other considerations

LT Optimability - Solutions that maximize LRS, combining all relevant decisions (& constraints); Interactive effect of short-term decisions on overall lifetime reproductive success

85
Q

Frequency-dependent Trait

A

Optimal mobbing behavior (cautious/daring) is a Frequency Dependent Trait

86
Q

Elephant ears

A

the pinnae are designed primarily for cooling the elephant (temperature control) and for conveying moods and messages to other elephants as a form of communication

generate infrasound (sound waves with frequencies below the lower limit of human audibility)

Elephants pass air through nasal passages

generate infrasound (14-35 Hz)
infrasound travels miles with minimal degradation
allows communication over long distances
87
Q

Components of Communication

A 
4 components"
Sender
Receiver
Channel
Signal
88
Q

Contexts for Communication

A
  1. Establishing territories
  2. Social dominance
  3. Mate attraction
  4. Pair bonding
  5. Exchanges between young and parents - feeding/contact
  6. Alarm/protection/signal danger – anti-predator
  7. Threat/predator deterrence
  8. Group cooperation/coordination – hunting/schooling
89
Q

Posion dart frog

A

Honest communication

Aposematic coloration - conspicuous coloring to honestly warn potential predators of danger or distaste

90
Q

Parts of brain

A

f . p

t . o

91
Q

Types of Visual Signals

A
  1. Color3 ways to achieve red color
  2. melanin pigments – indicator of quality of upbringing/health
  3. blood in skin – indicator of health and physiological control over body
  4. diet – foods with carotenoids are hard to find/get - carotenoids turn feathers red – thus indicate skill at acquiring resources
92
Q

House finch ex

A

Females prefer males with bright plumage

red plumage directly related to intake of carotenoid-rich foods (seeds, flowers, fruits)

indicates good foraging and competitive abilities, making him desirable mate = Honest Communication

stud v. dud

93
Q

Ways to achieve red color

A

3 ways to achieve red color

  1. melanin pigments – indicator of quality of upbringing/health
  2. blood in skin – indicator of health and physiological control over body
  3. diet – foods with carotenoids are hard to find/get - carotenoids turn feathers red – thus indicate skill at acquiring resources
94
Q

Visual Signals (adv/dis)

A

Advantages

  • Transmit info rapidly
  • Instantly locatable
  • Fast disappearance (there, then not there)
  • Use while moving
  • Showing energetically cheap(not to grow, but to use)

Disadvantages

  • Requires clear line of sight - uncluttered habitat
  • Easily attract unwanted receivers - predators
  • Can’t be used at night - light dependent (except fireflies etc.)
  • Growing = high energy
95
Q

Types of Visual Signals/Mechanisms of Visual Communication

A
  1. Color
  2. Color Patterns
  3. On/off flashing/frequency
  4. Size
  5. Showing meaningful features/teeth
96
Q

Ways to achieve red color

A

3 ways to achieve red color

  1. melanin pigments – indicator of quality of upbringing/health
  2. blood in skin – indicator of health and physiological control over body
  3. diet – foods with carotenoids are hard to find/get - carotenoids turn feathers red – thus indicate skill at acquiring resources
97
Q

Body Posture

A

visual signal

arms crossed = defensive
open arms = cooperation/acceptance

Rhesus monkey - Sitting threats of Rhesus monkey, Standing threat

98
Q

Acoustic Signals (adv/dis)

A

Advantages

  • Used 24 hours/day (not light dependent)
  • Transmitted over long distances
  • Fast change/high information content
  • Travels fast/around barriers

Disadvantages

  • Can be degraded in cluttered habitat
  • Easily attract unwanted receivers
  • Energetically expensive
99
Q

Mechanisms of Acoustic Communication

A
  1. Vocalizations – produced by respiratory structuressongs/calls/speech
    ex: mammals, birds, fish, amphibians
  2. Stridulation – rubbing appendages together limbs or wings or both
    ex: insects
  3. Banging/striking – hitting objects stamping feet/hooves ex: rabbits, hoofed mammals, beavers
100
Q

Chemical Communication

A

Advantages:

  • Can be used anytime (day or night)
  • Carries over long distances
  • Very specific between sender and receiver
  • Can be infinite variety - complex

Disadvantages:

  • Hard to locate sender
  • Temporally imprecise - limited complexity - meaning is simple (e.g. alarm, sex)
101
Q

Chemical Communication ex

A

Anal glands/urine used to mark territories – low volatility, big molecules for persistence

Alarm signals are smaller more volatile molecules - creates gradient for receivers to locate sender - fast fade-out – greater temporal precision

Same molecules in differing concentrations or contexts have different messages

  • In hive: Queen bee uses chemical to prevent cultivation of another queen
    - In air: same chemical used to attract males during mating flight
102
Q

Mechanism/Process of Chemical Communication

A

Pheromones – chemical messages meant to convey information to members of the same species

Detected by the vomeronasal organ – separate from the olfactory system – located in roof of themouth

Flehmen – “grimace”behavior that facilitates draw of pheromone to vomeronasal organ

103
Q

Tactile Communication (adv/dis)

A

Advantages:

  • Quick
  • Low energy expenditure
  • Highly individual
  • Can communicate 24 hrs – in dark

Disadvantages

  • Only effective at short distances
  • Can’t go around barriers
104
Q

Tactile Communication (adv/dis)

A

Advantages:

  • Quick
  • Low energy expenditure
  • Highly individual
  • Can communicate 24 hrs – in dark

Disadvantages

  • Only effective at short distances
  • Can’t go around barriers
105
Q

Tactile Communication (ex)

A

Substrate vibration/seismic signals –

ex: Kangaroo rat taps on the ground to establish territory
ex: Tree frog males tap substrate during courtship
ex: Jumping spiders tap rhythms on vibrating surfaces to accompany visual courting gestures

106
Q

Electrical Fields

A

Electrical fields – stacks of muscle or nerve cells create current waves in water - electric organ discharge

  • in two different types of fish
    – S America and Africa
  • detected by knollenorgan
  • messages depend on shape of electric field

mormyrid

107
Q

Functions of Touch

A

social dominance/hierarchy
courtship
social pair/bonding

108
Q

Alarm Calls

A

ubiquitous among animals - signal danger to conspecifics

ex: Vervet monkey shave 3 calls types-each indicates different predator

109
Q

Alarm Calls

A

ubiquitous among animals - signal danger to conspecifics

ex: Vervet monkey shave 3 calls types-each indicates different predator

  1. Loud bark = leopard call -sends monkeys into trees
  2. Double cough = for eagles – causes looking up/seeking shelter
  3. “Chutter” = for snakes – causes standing on hind legs and scanning the ground
110
Q

2 Main Types of Communication

A

Honest Communication – “true” signal – raises the fitness of both sender and receiver
e.g. warning coloration

Dishonest Communication – “untrue” signal – lowers the fitness of either sender or receiver
ex: eavesdropping, deceit

111
Q

2 Main Types of Communication

A

Honest Communication – “true” signal – raises the fitness of both sender and receiver
e.g. warning coloration

Dishonest Communication – “untrue” signal – lowers the fitness of either sender or receiver
ex: eavesdropping, deceit

112
Q

Handicap Principle

A

Strategic constraints on deceit

- ‘handicap principle’ : signal is costly, only superior individuals gain net benefit from high signal values

113
Q

Butterfly example

A

harmless viceroy mimics monarch

dishonest communication

  • Harmless species may mimic a toxic species – Batesian Mimicry
  • The sender increases fitness and the receiver decreases fitness (e.g. does not eat harmless butterfly)
114
Q

Ambiguous Communication

A

Ambiguous Communication – may or may not increase fitness of either sender or receiver

signaler could benefit from deception but could give accurate signal

Example 1: male courtship signals • male signals to female to persuade her to mate• fitness of male increases if female permits mating• fitness of female increases if she mates only with best mate

Example 2: threat displays• fitness of signaler is increased if intruder is convinced signaler is a formidable enemy• fitness of receiver is increased if it can accurately assess risk of fighting with signaler and act accordingly

115
Q

Evolution of Communication

A

Senders produce 2 types of signals

1) honest
2) dishonest

Receivers give 3 types of response

1) pay attention to honest signal, ignore dishonest
2) pay attention to dishonest signal, ignore honest
3) pay attention to all signals

over evolutionary time, selection will favor receivers that ignore dishonest signals…

EXPECT:“forced honesty” in signaling, despite conflicting fitness interests…

116
Q

Newt and Garter Snake

A

Rough skinned newt – Pacific aquatic newt, one of the most toxic animals ever identified
Can kill person within hours

Highly toxic to snakes, other amphibians, mammals and birds; One predator has evolved the resistance to newt TTX

Garter snakes can eat rough skinned newt without adverse effects

Tetrodatoxin (TTX) secreted and spread on the skin
Blocks sodium channels and pre-vents action potentials, destroys nervous function

117
Q

Evolution of Communication

A

Senders produce 2 types of signals

1) honest
2) dishonest

Receivers give 3 types of response

1) pay attention to honest signal, ignore dishonest
2) pay attention to dishonest signal, ignore honest
3) pay attention to all signals

over evolutionary time, selection will favor receivers that ignore dishonest signals…

EXPECT:“forced honesty” in signaling, despite conflicting fitness interests…

118
Q

Communication Schema

A

Cues produced by sender 1 contain information
I
I
V
Selection on receivers to pay attention (sensory systems)
I
I
V
Selection on sender to elicit response in receiver (sensory exploitation)

eX: bats hunt using ultrasound–>selection on moths to hear ultrasound–>moth ears evolve over time–>selection on male moths to produce acoustic signals to attract females (sensory exploitation)

119
Q

Displacement activity

A

Displacement activities occur when an animal experiences high motivation for two or more conflicting behaviours: the resulting displacement activity is usually unrelated to the competing motivations. Birds, for example, may peck at grass when uncertain whether to attack or flee from an opponent

120
Q

Development of honest communication signal

A
  1. Intention movement (eg snarling teeth, done before action to fortell it)
  2. Ritualization (becomes part of incomplete behavioral pattern, originally used for other purposes but now acts as signal

3.

121
Q

Posion dart frog

A

Honest communication

Aposematic coloration - conspicuous coloring to honestly warn potential predators of danger or distaste

122
Q

Alarm Calls

A

ubiquitous among animals - signal danger to conspecifics

ex: Vervet monkey shave 3 calls types-each indicates different predator

  1. Loud bark = leopard call -sends monkeys into trees
  2. Double cough = for eagles – causes looking up/seeking shelter
  3. “Chutter” = for snakes – causes standing on hind legs and scanning the ground
123
Q

Development of honest communication signal

A
  1. Intention movement (eg snarling teeth, done before action to fortell it)
  2. Ritualization (becomes part of incomplete behavioral pattern, originally used for other purposes but now acts as signal
  3. Reliable communication signal
124
Q

Semantic Communication

A

the systematic use of signals to refer to objects in the external world - using different signals to represent distinct objects in the environment

e. g. Vervet monkeys
ex: Vervet monkey shave 3 calls types-each indicates different predator

  1. Loud bark = leopard call -sends monkeys into trees
  2. Double cough = for eagles – causes looking up/seeking shelter
  3. “Chutter” = for snakes – causes standing on hind legs and scanning the ground
125
Q

Language Theorists

A

Skinner - learned
Chomsky - innate
Pinker - natural selection

126
Q

Vomeronasal

A

sensory organ of reptile, amphibian, patch of cells in nasal cavity used to detect pheromones/high-moisture odor

Pheromones – chemical messages meant to convey information to members of the same species

Detected by the vomeronasal organ – separate from the olfactory system – located in roof of themouth

Flehmen – “grimace”behavior that facilitates draw of pheromone to vomeronasal organ

127
Q

Language Theorists

A

Skinner - learned
Chomsky - innate
Pinker - natural selection

128
Q

Poulet Crickets

A

How do animals reliably detect, perceive and react to communication sounds in acoustically cluttered environments?

Female crickets locate males for mating by recognizing and localizing species-specific acoustic cues. Females use the temporal patterns of male songs to identify them

Phonotaxis = orienting based on acoustic cues

Crickets have ears in their front legs –> Males produce calling song by rubbing wings together –> Females phonotax to find male

Hypothesis: that recognition of the male’s species-specific song results in an increase in gain of the reactive steering (orientation) behavior of the female – and that this gain increase is not selective (once started, will occur with any sound)

129
Q

Sisneros Steriod-depedent auditory

A

Steroid-dependent auditory plasticity leads to adaptive coupling of sender and receiver

Female Plainfin midshipman uses sound to locate male and pick male with which to breed

130
Q

Infrasound/ultrasound – what and how animals use them

A

infrasound - sound waves with frequencies below the lower limit of human audibility

frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing; ex: bats use high-frequency cries to listen for weak ultrasonic echoes reflected back from objects in their flight path

infra
the pinnae are designed primarily for cooling the elephant (temperature control) and for conveying moods and messages to other elephants as a form of communication–>generate infrasound (sound waves with frequencies below the lower limit of human audibility)–> Elephants pass air through nasal passages–> generate infrasound–>infrasound travels miles with minimal degradation; allows communication over long distances

131
Q

Anti-predator tactics

A

crypsis, warning coloration, scream, play dead, mimicry)

132
Q

Selfish herd hypothesis

A

The selfish herd theory states that individuals within a population attempt to reduce their predation risk by putting other conspecifics between themselves and predator

Fish, such as minnows, school to reduce predation risk
Adelie penguins frequently wait to jump into the water until they have formed an aggregate to protect themselves from seal predation

133
Q

Sisneros Steriod-depedent auditory

A

Steroid-dependent auditory plasticity leads to adaptive coupling of sender and receiver

Female Plainfin midshipman uses sound to locate male and pick male with which to breed

steroid hormones can induce an improvement in the
precision of temporal encoding

T and E2 treated fish show higher vector stength to higher frequencies than do controls

The hormone-induced increase in VS to higher frequencies matches the harmonics of the male’s mating hum.

134
Q

Caves avian brood

A

Hosts of avian brood parasites have evolved egg signatures with elevated information content

Some brood parasites lay eggs that mimic (look like) host species’ eggs, making host detection of parasite eggs difficult.

In evolutionary arms race, host species should evolve ways tod etect parasite eggs.

Specific visual features on a female’s own eggs is a possible mechanism for a host female to recognize their own eggs and identify parasite eggs.

Identity “signature”

Do egg visual features (e.g. color, speckle pattern, luminance)of parasite hosts vary more among individuals than egg visual features in species that are not parasitized?

Entropy (randomness) was significantly higher in parasitized species than in unparasitized species.

Higher variability across individual’s eggs in parasitized species suggests that hosts have evolved mechanism to:1.Identify own eggs, thus identifying/rejecting parasite eggs2.Produce individual-specific eggs, thus impeding parasite evolution of egg mimicry.

135
Q

Bertram temporal shifts

A

Call conspicuousness should therefore be a trade-off between attracting mates and predators (parasitoidflies)

Flies are most active during few hours after dusk
Most mating occurs at dawn

Male crickets may compensate for the conspicuousness of calling behavior by controlling their circadian cycling of call frequency, amplitude and duration

Males calling behavior was not different in the presence of 1) nothing, 2) a female cricket or 3) a female parasitoid fly

They do not respond to immediate presence of either potential mate or potential predator

136
Q

Arms Race

A

Medicine resistant microbe
Arms race between humans and microbes

Rough-skin Newt — poisonous
Its skin glands excrete one of the most potent toxins found in nature
ingestion = Paralyze within minutes, organ shutdown within hours
pinhead = enough to kill a human
One could kill 100 people
Why should it be so many times more toxic to kill way too many prey factors? extreme
Gardner snake — driving extreme toxicity; selective pressure: as predator evolves to resist toxins, prey has to develop higher levels of toxin (arms race)
Sometimes slowed down, immobile from eating newt
Cost: the more resistant a snake, the more slowly it moves without toxin; tradeoff between speed and resistance level (more susceptible to their predators)

In 20th century, scientists began focusing on the chemicals microbes used to attack each other — could kill without harming — antibiotics

Russian prison system; skyrocket of prison rate since collapse of SU
Overcrowding, poor nutrition, poor sanitation
TB — can lie dormant for decades in a healthy person for decades, if immune system is weakened, microbes begin to proliferate and consume the lungs

Expels contagious droplets in speaking, coughing; present for hours

Drugs killed off most, left most resistant
Multi-drug resistant TB

Low quality, never finish

Second line drugs

Nearly half of all prescriptions in US=unnecessary or inappropriate
Antibiotics in animal feeds
More drug resistant microbes to the point where we won’t be resistant to the most deadly
More drugs launched, more resistance developed

Harmfulness of microbe dependent on method of transmittance
More mild = more easily transmittable
So harmful that if person can’t move, can be widely transmitted

Dropped in harmfulness with clean water access

We can domesticate these diseases to be less harmful; working with evolutions to subdue microbes

FIV/HIV; protective gene, less lethal strains

Mutation protecting against
Hiv infection; most ppl have receptors on their immune cells that allow HIV to dock and gain entry; ppl with mutation lack all or some of these receptors; HIV becomes impossible

10% of European caucasian; 700 years ago, Bubonic plague mutation

Symbiois; leaf-cutter ants, cut fresh vegetation, cultivate fungus
mold; white, waxy coating; wax=bacteria
Same bacteria producing half of all antibiotics;

Bacteria/mold arms race

Village/farm; contact with livestock=protection against allergies
High levels of microorganisms in stables help prime child’s immune system for life

137
Q

Dilution hypothesis

A

offset chance that one will be killed
butterflies
birds

138
Q

Bat-moth evolutionary arms race

A

Moths developed an early warning system to defend against the new way bats attack. Moths have evolved ears which allow them to hear bat echolocation, execute evasive flight manoeuvres and avoid being eaten. Some bats in turn improved their offensive weaponry by evolving stealth echolocation – that is, echolocation at frequencies and intensities that are inaudible to moths. Some moths, already equipped with ears, have in turn evolved ultrasonic clicks of their own that are used defensively during a bat attack.

139
Q

Habitat and nest selection in aphids

A

aphids compete for spots near midribs of leaves

Larger leaves are preferred but in short supply

Females regularly fought for access to large leaves

optimal spot near basal

will fight all day for spot, but may not be worth it because the reproductive success of 2 is pretty similar to 1

140
Q

convergent and divergent evolution

A

divergent evolution and occurs when one species diverges into multiple descendant species

Convergent evolution occurs when species have different ancestral origins but have developed similar features

141
Q

Homing in pigeons

A

ability to find its way home over extremely long distances

Magnetoreception (also magnetoception) is a sense which allows an organism to detect a magnetic field to perceive direction, altitude or locatio

142
Q

Optimal foraging – assessing site quality

A

Variety of animals will “choose” the “patch” of food that offers the most energy and is most stableBut often continue to sample less profitable less reliable patches

Chipmunks exploit one patch of seeds - the one that is most reliableIf present multiple seed trays, consistent feeding behavior developsMost abundant tray is sampled most often. If abundance is decreased, the less reliable trays are searched more often

143
Q

Optimal Foraging constraints

A

Competition – spending energy depending on chances of losing it to another animal

Salmon are less likely to give a long chase to prey in higher density populations – Longer chase =more likely to lose prey to competitor

144
Q

Mechanisms of Acoustic Communication

A
  1. Vocalizations – produced by respiratory structures songs/calls/speech
    ex: mammals, birds, fish, amphibians
  2. Stridulation – rubbing appendages together limbs or wings or both
    ex: insects
  3. Banging/striking – hitting objects stamping feet/hooves ex: rabbits, hoofed mammals, beavers
145
Q

Homing in pigeons

A

ability to find its way home over extremely long distances

Magnetoreception (also magnetoception) is a sense which allows an organism to detect a magnetic field to perceive direction, altitude or locatio

internal biological clock = big role
reset by placing in closed room with artificial lighting
can become clock-shifted due to light routine
if released, bird will fly as if the sun has just come up
due east, as if sun has come up in east

146
Q

Butterfly migration patterns

A

fly during day –> use sun as compass, filtered out UV light, could no longer fly
wavelengths critical for navigation

147
Q

Butterfly migration patterns

A

fly during day –> use sun as compass, filtered out UV light, could no longer fly
wavelengths critical for navigation

148
Q

Pinker why we well suited for language

A
  1. “cause and effect” thinking
  2. Long childhood/biparental care – opportunityto learn complex behavioral tasks from adults
  3. Put children together w/o language, they willdevelop their own
  4. Our ancestors split from chimp ancestors 200,000-300,000 generations ago. Even though chimps don’t use language, it could have evolved slowly in our lineage.
149
Q

Uniqueness of language

A

Expressive power – ability to convey an unlimited number and complexity of ideas from one person to another

Abstract symbols – word “duck” does not look like a duck – yet we can all learn to associate word with item

Symbol combination with grammar – infinite use of finite media

Abstract categories - “subject”, “noun”“verb”, “adjective”

150
Q

Native/other language window

A

Perceptual discrimination of native language phonemes develops between 6 and 12 months

151
Q

Types of eyes

A

Simple
Camera
Compound
Pinhole

Animal Behavior (3 decks)

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