Exam II Flashcards
Ultrasound
frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing
bats use high-frequency cries to listen for weak ultrasonic echoes reflected back from objects in their flight path
Infrasound
sound waves with frequencies below the lower limit of human audibility
Camera eye
like human, with lens for focus
Pinhole Eye
Pinhole – no lens - uses small hole to control light – no focus control greater field of vision
Brainstem
Brainstem breathing, temperature control hormone control, initial sensory info
Cerebral Cortex
large forebrain, sensory processing, initiating movement, cognition, emotion, reasoning
Neurons
a specialized cell transmitting nerve impulses; a nerve cell.
Glia
non-electrically active brain cells
support neurons structurally and chemically
Motor Neurons
sends commands to muscle fibers
Sensory Neurons
sensory neural systems encode, organize and decode information from the environment
processes sensory info(light, pressure, sounds)
Neuron Communication
x
Motor Unit
Motor unit – one motor neuron and the muscle fibers that it innervates
Myelin
Myelin – glia that wrap around axons, speed action potential travel
Myelin is most dense in somatosensory and motor cortex
Motor Program
Motor Program – stereotyped sequence of motor behaviors to accomplish one overall behavior - automatic in quality and is critical to survival (e.g. Tritonia escape swimming)
Cortical Magnification/Hypertrophy
Brain Hypertrophy – increase in size of specific regions of the brain due to an extraordinary sensory or motor capacity
Also called “expanded representation” or “magnification”
ex: star-nosed mole
Phonotaxis
Phonotaxis = orienting based on acoustic cue
Reactive steering
Reactive Steering: movements right or left in response to an orienting stimulus
Sensory and Motor Cortex
Sensory and motor cortex Somatosensory and motor cortex are organized by body part. Myelin is most dense in somatosensory and motor cortex
Cortical Magnification
Cortical magnification describes how many neurons in an area of the visual cortex are ‘responsible’ for processing a stimulus of a given size, as a function of visual field location.
see ex. Neuro 2
Command Neuron
Command neurons: single or small group of interneurons that are both necessary and sufficient to initiate stereoptyped motor pattern
CNS/PNS
CNS: brain and spinal cord
sensation, perception, cognition, reasoning, emotion, motor
PNS: nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord
nerves - receptors, sensory, motor
carry info to and from brain
Motor Program
A motor program is an abstract representation of movement that centrally organizes and controls the many degrees of freedom involved in performing an action
Central Pattern Generator
A group of cells in the CNS that produce a particular pattern of signals necessary for a functional behavioral response
the neural clusters in a central pattern generator play a preprogrammed set of messages that help organize the motor output of a FAP
Phase Locking
fish midman; female becomes more sensitive to the harmonics of male hum by phase locking to them
locking to wave forms, helps reception
distance of curve
T and E2 treated fish show higher VS to higher frequencies than do controls
The hormone-induced increase in VS to higher frequencies matches the harmonics of the male’s mating hum.
Circadian Rhythm
Behaviors cycle throughout the day/night
e.g. sleep, eat, hunt, lay eggs
Photoperiod
number of hours of light in a 24-hr period
Free-running
Free-running cycle: A cycle of activity that is not matched to environmental cues; environment-independent internal circadian rhythm; in a lab that is bright 24 hrs, crickets sound at roughly the same time each day
when light mirrors outside, crickets learn to anticipate this and sound ~2 hrs before lights turn off
–> COMPLETE CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CRICKET CALLING HAS BOTH AN ENVIRONMENT-INDEPENDENT TIMER (biological clock/free-running cycle) & AN ENVIRONMENT-ACTIVATED ENTRAINMENT DEVICE THAT SYNCHRONIZES THE CLOCK WITH LOCAL LIGHT CONDITIONS
Entrainment
Entrainment is the synchronization or alignment of the internal biological clock rhythm, including its phase and period, to external time cues, such as the natural dark-light cycle.
Circannual Rhythm
Behaviors cycle through the year
e.g. mate, breed, raise young, migrate, hibernate
Hypothalamus
controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic systems, and involved in sleep and emotional activity.
SCN
suprachiasmatic nucleus: hypothalamic neural clusters that receive inputs from nerves originating in the retina
–> likely secures info about day and night length, that adjust biological clock
Evolutionary arms race
the antagonistic reciprocal coevolution of genes, physiology, and behavior between:
- predator and prey
read Alcock for bat and moth
garter snake and rough skinned newt - parasite and host
wasp and cockroach
Brood parasitism
Brood parasites are organisms that rely on others to raise their young
ex: wasp/cockroach
Sympatric
Sympatric – species sharing the same geographic regions
Allopatric
Allopatric – species that do not share the same geographic regions
Game Theory
Evolutionary game theory (EGT) is the application of game theory to evolving populations in biology. It defines a framework of contests, strategies, and analytics into which Darwinian competition can be modelled
Crypsis
avoid observation by other animals
camo, mimicry
ex: peppered moth
Blue jays can be operantly conditioned to detect cryptic moths – improved detection with experience if one type
Warning Coloration
monarch butterfly
conspicuous coloring that warns a predator that an animal is unpalatable or poisonous.
TTX
Rough skinned newt – Pacific aquatic newt, one of the most toxic animals ever identified
Can kill person within hours
Highly toxic to snakes, other amphibians, mammals and birds; One predator has evolved the resistance to newt TTX
Garter snakes can eat rough skinned newt without adverse effects
Tetrodatoxin (TTX) secreted and spread on the skin
Blocks sodium channels and pre-vents action potentials, destroys nervous function
Optimal Foraging Theory
The acquisition, consumption, and metabolism offood such that energy gained is maximized and energy spent is minimized
In OPTIMALITY THEORY, the key variables are:
a. decisions: selecting a behavioral option
b. currency: what is being maximized (e.g., energy intake)
c. constraints: structural and behavioral limits of animals (e.g., bill size / shape; mouth, teeth, tongue, stomach, digestive physiology, energy stores . . . )
Optimal Diet
maximizes energy gain
Profitability = net energy gain/handling time
Redshank shorebirds forage for worms
Will eat worms of different sizes
But when large worms are abundant, will only eat them
Filter Feeding
Filter feeding: straining food from surrounding water. plankton, krill
- evolved separately in many aquatic animals
- an ancient feeding method
- Allows for massive body size
low cost
high yield
reliable availability
size helps and doesn’t harm
Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)
Evolutionarily Stable Strategy: strategy which if adopted by a population cannot be invaded by any competing alternative strategy
ex: Gull Mobbing: Between the 2 extremes there is an equilibrium – trade-off between % cautious and % daring in the population ratio = Evolutionarily Stable Strategy
ex: Bluegill Sunfish- Two types of males – guarder, sneaker/female mimic
Behavioral Ecology
the study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressures
Internal Maps
Finally, some animals may use a cognitive map to navigate. A cognitive map involves a mental map-like representation of the environment. Though controversial and difficult to demonstrate, honey bees show some evidence of using cognitive maps; when they are physically displaced to a new foraging location, they return home via a direct route. That is, they take a shortcut, suggesting that they possess a cognitive map of their territory
Kinesis
movement/motion
Taxis
the movement of an organism in response to a stimulus such as light or the presence of food. Taxes are innate behavioural responses.
Piloting
Other species use landmarks to guide their movement. Animals can learn the relationships among landmarks such as rocks, trees, or other large objects to triangulate their position. Landmarks are often the primary cues that animals use to locate their nests.
digger wasps were unable to locate their nest entrances after he moved the landmarks surrounding the nests
For example, after digger wasps leave their nests they circle around the entrance to orient themselves to local landmarks. When the landmarks are moved several centimetres away, the returning wasps land where the nest entrance should be relative to the landmarks and have difficulty finding their nests
Compass Orientation
Many animals are able to navigate using the Sun as a compass.
eg pigeon, butterfly
Dead Reckoning
Dead reckoning involves estimating the distance and direction one has traveled. For instance, desert ants (Cataglyphis spp.) track how far away and in what direction they have traveled from home in order to return home after searching for food
“True” Navigation
Animals are capable of true navigation if, after displacement to a location where they have never been, they can determine their position relative to a goal without relying on familiar surroundings, cues that emanate from the destination, or information collected during the outward journey.
vectors
Aposematic Coloration
honest communication
Aposematic coloration - conspicuous coloring to honestly warn potential predators of danger or distaste
poison dart frog
Badges
Badges – specific visual characteristics that indicate identity (species, sex) or behavioral condition
Male anoles lizard dewlap
Male damselfly
Carotenoids
Carotenoids - pigments in plants, algae, and bacteria - color (red/orange) parts of animals made of keratin
Cannot be synthesized
Must be obtained through diet – hard to get food items
Honest visual signal communicating ability to acquire resources?
Pheremones
Pheromones – chemical messages meant to convey information to members of the same species
Vomeronasal Organ
Detected by the vomeronasal organ – separate from the olfactory system – located in roof of the mouth
Flehman
Flehmen – “grimace”behavior that facilitates draw of pheromone to vomeronasal organ
Sensory Exploitation
when a sender exploits the pre-existing perceptual biases of a receiver, often originally involved in a different behavior
watermite, copepod vibration
Communication
the process by which senders use specially designed signals or displays to modify the behavior of receivers
effect: Change in behavior based on information transmitted (S->R)
Change in fitness based on information transmitted (R->S)
Signal Modalities
Signal Modalities (channels): acoustic visual tactile chemical vibrational electrical
(intent: provide information)
Play Markers
Play markers – signals that indicate a lack of aggression/play
Dogs use play bows to indicate lack of aggression/play Social hierarchy Cooperation Threat Sensory/motor control
Honest Communication
“true” signal – raises the fitness of both sender and receiver
e.g. warning coloration, baring teeth, mating displays
Sender only spends effort/risk etc to produce signal if it has a high probability of altering the behavior of the receiver to improve sender’s fitness (survival reproduction)
ex: Aposematic coloration (poison frog)
Dishonest Communication
Dishonest Communication – untrue signal conveyed; lowers the fitness of either sender or receiver
- – wrong receiver costs sender
Eavesdropping – signal is intercepted by the “wrong”receiver – could be used against sender or intended receiver – e.g. predator hears mating call and locates
- – deception could cost receiver
Deceit – signal does not convey correct information - may convey false information that benefits sender’
ex: pied flycatchers – males mate with more than one, females gain from mating with only one
Males may deceive femalesFemales assess whether male is mated - if he is alone on a territory during her repeated visits, then he is probably unmatedBy repeated sampling of male behavior, females are able to avoid mating with previously mated males
whine, chuck
Sensory bias – perceptual/processing preference for certain stimuli
Females of species with male chuck and without male chuck have same audiogram and prefer chuck
Sensory tuning evolved before the chuck
drawback..male tungara frog and fringe-lipped bat
Classic eavesdropping– dishonest communication (fitness of the frog is decreased) – the chuck makes the male frog easy to locate as a prey item
• Harmless species may mimic a toxic species – Batesian Mimicry• The sender increases fitness and the receiver decreases fitness (e.g. does not eat harmless butterfly) (viceroy butterfly + monarch)
Sensory Bias
Sensory bias – perceptual/processing preference for certain stimuli
Eavesdropping
drawback..male tungara frog and fringe-lipped bat
Classic eavesdropping– dishonest communication (fitness of the frog is decreased) – the chuck makes the male frog easy to locate as a prey item
Deceit
transmission of misinformation by one animal to another, of the same or different species, in a way that propagates beliefs that are not true
ex. mimicry and camoflauge
Forced Honesty
“forced honesty” – deceit is impossible
Physical constraints on deceit
- deceit physically impossible
- direct material link between signal and some underlying aspect of the sender’s state or condition
Strategic constraints on deceit
- ‘handicap principle’ : signal is costly, only superior individuals gain net benefit from high signal values
Unforced Honesty
- Unforced honesty- fitness interests of sender & receiver coincide, sender is honest, no problem for receiver/receiver benefits
Waggle dance in honeybees
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
major histocompatibility complex (MHC); physical constraint on deceit
- highly polymorphic genes
- control immunological self/non-self recognition
- more diverse = stronger immune system
Females of some species seek males based on their MHC genotype
Females prefer to mate with males with dissimilar MHC haplotypes (set of genes that are inherited together)
House mice example, humans/birth control
In both mice and humans, females choose males with different MHCs
MHC is communicated by sender (male) through chemical channel (odors) to receiver (female) - mate choice is directed by MHC composition
This choice depends on the female’s hormonal condition
Honest signal of fitness – maximizes immune system of offspring/avoids inbreeding
Intention Movements
Preparatory movements becomeshow intention
ex: wolves bare teeth before biting
Ritualization
evolutionary modification of movements and structures to improve their signal function – stabilization of the behavior, its meaning, its reception
intention movement –> ritualization
- increased detectability
- decreased ambiguity
Some animal activities have become ritualized over the course of evolution so that they now serve a communicative function. Protective reflexes, for example, such as narrowing the eyes and flattening the ears prepare an animal in danger to protect sense organs. These movements also may indicate fear or anger to other animals. Intention movements such as these are incomplete behavior patterns that provide information about the activity a particular animal is about to perform.
a dog who is preparing to bite retracts his lips into the familiar growl snarl. This particular behavior began so that the dog does not bite his own lips as he bites. However at some point in evolutionary history, the receiver noticed that the snarling dog presented a danger to him. The signaling dog now notices the receiver often backs down before the fight even begins, and continues retracting his lips as a way to ward off the receiver
“True” Language
True Language - symbols, sounds, meanings and rules for their combination that constitutes the primary mode of communication
e.g. humans
Motherese
Studies have found that infants appear to detect such things as syllable and phrase boundaries better when hearing motherese, and that infants spoken to with motherese appear to be better at identifying differences between consonants.
better communicate sounds
hyperarticulation, high in pitch, with many glissando variations that are more pronounced than those of normal speech
Optimal diet ex
Crows crack open and eat walnuts
- # of times nut is dropped increases likelihood of breaking open
- Crow adjusts height of drop depending on # of times dropped
- Minimizes energy spent flying
- Minimizes chance of nut being stolen
- efficient strategy
Cooperation
working together to acquire resources
- Social Insects - communicate with nestmates to enhance their foraging - methods include waggle dance in honeybees
- Other group living animals - inform others of food sources and work together to form traps/ chase down prey – killer whales/bubble nets; Osprey inform each other
Can take prey larger than individual predators**wolves cooperatively hunt and take down moose
Optimal Foraging equation
energy profit/handling time
Constraints on Optimal Foraging
- Predation – energy gain must be balanced with risk
- Feed less often
- Feed in safer places
ex: Chacma baboons avoid woodlands where food is most abundant but predation risk is highest (leopards) - Competition – spending energy depending on chances of losing it to another animal
- Salmon are less likely to give a longchase to prey in higher density populations; Longer chase - more likely to lose prey to competitor
Honeybee round dance/waggle dance
Foragers indicate a close by food source using the round dance
Honey bees forage for nectar and pollen, encode source locations and communicate location to hivemates
Foragers indicate a source more than 50 m away using the waggle dance
Distance is indicated by rate of full waggle circuit or duration of waggle run
Direction is orientation of loops and angle of waggle
Up comb = toward sun
Down comb = away from sun
Angle of waggle tells angle of food with reference to hive and sun
Waggle 20 degrees to right of vertical = food 20 degrees to right of sun
Economics of Behavior
Behavior is a trade off between costs and benefits
Costs:
- feeding
- attracting mates
- danger
- defense
- raising young
Benefits:
- survival
- health
- nutrients/ energy in reproductive success
Optimal Behavior
benefits must outweigh the costs
Gull mobbing
Benefit = mobbing minimizes loss of young Cost = risk of injury, energy output, risk of leaving young
There are cautious and daring mobbers
Daring = starting/leading the mob Cautious = small disruption
Optimal mobbing distance = 4 m
Gull mobbing
Benefit = mobbing minimizes loss of young Cost = risk of injury, energy output, risk of leaving young
There are cautious and daring mobbers
Daring = starting/leading the mob Cautious = small disruption
Optimal mobbing distance = 4 m
Variability of costs/benefits
- Costs and Benefits are not the same for all individuals
* Costs and Benefits are not the same in every habitat or context
Short-term v. Long-term Optimability
ST Optimability - Focus on immediate solution to problem in absence of other considerations
LT Optimability - Solutions that maximize LRS, combining all relevant decisions (& constraints); Interactive effect of short-term decisions on overall lifetime reproductive success
Frequency-dependent Trait
Optimal mobbing behavior (cautious/daring) is a Frequency Dependent Trait
Elephant ears
the pinnae are designed primarily for cooling the elephant (temperature control) and for conveying moods and messages to other elephants as a form of communication
generate infrasound (sound waves with frequencies below the lower limit of human audibility)
Elephants pass air through nasal passages
generate infrasound (14-35 Hz) infrasound travels miles with minimal degradation allows communication over long distances
Components of Communication
4 components" Sender Receiver Channel Signal
Contexts for Communication
- Establishing territories
- Social dominance
- Mate attraction
- Pair bonding
- Exchanges between young and parents - feeding/contact
- Alarm/protection/signal danger – anti-predator
- Threat/predator deterrence
- Group cooperation/coordination – hunting/schooling
Posion dart frog
Honest communication
Aposematic coloration - conspicuous coloring to honestly warn potential predators of danger or distaste
Parts of brain
f . p
t . o
Types of Visual Signals
- Color3 ways to achieve red color
- melanin pigments – indicator of quality of upbringing/health
- blood in skin – indicator of health and physiological control over body
- diet – foods with carotenoids are hard to find/get - carotenoids turn feathers red – thus indicate skill at acquiring resources
House finch ex
Females prefer males with bright plumage
red plumage directly related to intake of carotenoid-rich foods (seeds, flowers, fruits)
indicates good foraging and competitive abilities, making him desirable mate = Honest Communication
stud v. dud
Ways to achieve red color
3 ways to achieve red color
- melanin pigments – indicator of quality of upbringing/health
- blood in skin – indicator of health and physiological control over body
- diet – foods with carotenoids are hard to find/get - carotenoids turn feathers red – thus indicate skill at acquiring resources
Visual Signals (adv/dis)
Advantages
- Transmit info rapidly
- Instantly locatable
- Fast disappearance (there, then not there)
- Use while moving
- Showing energetically cheap(not to grow, but to use)
Disadvantages
- Requires clear line of sight - uncluttered habitat
- Easily attract unwanted receivers - predators
- Can’t be used at night - light dependent (except fireflies etc.)
- Growing = high energy
Types of Visual Signals/Mechanisms of Visual Communication
- Color
- Color Patterns
- On/off flashing/frequency
- Size
- Showing meaningful features/teeth
Ways to achieve red color
3 ways to achieve red color
- melanin pigments – indicator of quality of upbringing/health
- blood in skin – indicator of health and physiological control over body
- diet – foods with carotenoids are hard to find/get - carotenoids turn feathers red – thus indicate skill at acquiring resources
Body Posture
visual signal
arms crossed = defensive
open arms = cooperation/acceptance
Rhesus monkey - Sitting threats of Rhesus monkey, Standing threat
Acoustic Signals (adv/dis)
Advantages
- Used 24 hours/day (not light dependent)
- Transmitted over long distances
- Fast change/high information content
- Travels fast/around barriers
Disadvantages
- Can be degraded in cluttered habitat
- Easily attract unwanted receivers
- Energetically expensive
Mechanisms of Acoustic Communication
- Vocalizations – produced by respiratory structuressongs/calls/speech
ex: mammals, birds, fish, amphibians - Stridulation – rubbing appendages together limbs or wings or both
ex: insects - Banging/striking – hitting objects stamping feet/hooves ex: rabbits, hoofed mammals, beavers
Chemical Communication
Advantages:
- Can be used anytime (day or night)
- Carries over long distances
- Very specific between sender and receiver
- Can be infinite variety - complex
Disadvantages:
- Hard to locate sender
- Temporally imprecise - limited complexity - meaning is simple (e.g. alarm, sex)
Chemical Communication ex
Anal glands/urine used to mark territories – low volatility, big molecules for persistence
Alarm signals are smaller more volatile molecules - creates gradient for receivers to locate sender - fast fade-out – greater temporal precision
Same molecules in differing concentrations or contexts have different messages
- In hive: Queen bee uses chemical to prevent cultivation of another queen
- In air: same chemical used to attract males during mating flight
Mechanism/Process of Chemical Communication
Pheromones – chemical messages meant to convey information to members of the same species
Detected by the vomeronasal organ – separate from the olfactory system – located in roof of themouth
Flehmen – “grimace”behavior that facilitates draw of pheromone to vomeronasal organ
Tactile Communication (adv/dis)
Advantages:
- Quick
- Low energy expenditure
- Highly individual
- Can communicate 24 hrs – in dark
Disadvantages
- Only effective at short distances
- Can’t go around barriers
Tactile Communication (adv/dis)
Advantages:
- Quick
- Low energy expenditure
- Highly individual
- Can communicate 24 hrs – in dark
Disadvantages
- Only effective at short distances
- Can’t go around barriers
Tactile Communication (ex)
Substrate vibration/seismic signals –
ex: Kangaroo rat taps on the ground to establish territory
ex: Tree frog males tap substrate during courtship
ex: Jumping spiders tap rhythms on vibrating surfaces to accompany visual courting gestures
Electrical Fields
Electrical fields – stacks of muscle or nerve cells create current waves in water - electric organ discharge
- in two different types of fish
– S America and Africa - detected by knollenorgan
- messages depend on shape of electric field
mormyrid
Functions of Touch
social dominance/hierarchy
courtship
social pair/bonding
Alarm Calls
ubiquitous among animals - signal danger to conspecifics
ex: Vervet monkey shave 3 calls types-each indicates different predator
Alarm Calls
ubiquitous among animals - signal danger to conspecifics
ex: Vervet monkey shave 3 calls types-each indicates different predator
- Loud bark = leopard call -sends monkeys into trees
- Double cough = for eagles – causes looking up/seeking shelter
- “Chutter” = for snakes – causes standing on hind legs and scanning the ground
2 Main Types of Communication
Honest Communication – “true” signal – raises the fitness of both sender and receiver
e.g. warning coloration
Dishonest Communication – “untrue” signal – lowers the fitness of either sender or receiver
ex: eavesdropping, deceit
2 Main Types of Communication
Honest Communication – “true” signal – raises the fitness of both sender and receiver
e.g. warning coloration
Dishonest Communication – “untrue” signal – lowers the fitness of either sender or receiver
ex: eavesdropping, deceit
Handicap Principle
Strategic constraints on deceit
- ‘handicap principle’ : signal is costly, only superior individuals gain net benefit from high signal values
Butterfly example
harmless viceroy mimics monarch
dishonest communication
- Harmless species may mimic a toxic species – Batesian Mimicry
- The sender increases fitness and the receiver decreases fitness (e.g. does not eat harmless butterfly)
Ambiguous Communication
Ambiguous Communication – may or may not increase fitness of either sender or receiver
signaler could benefit from deception but could give accurate signal
Example 1: male courtship signals • male signals to female to persuade her to mate• fitness of male increases if female permits mating• fitness of female increases if she mates only with best mate
Example 2: threat displays• fitness of signaler is increased if intruder is convinced signaler is a formidable enemy• fitness of receiver is increased if it can accurately assess risk of fighting with signaler and act accordingly
Evolution of Communication
Senders produce 2 types of signals
1) honest
2) dishonest
Receivers give 3 types of response
1) pay attention to honest signal, ignore dishonest
2) pay attention to dishonest signal, ignore honest
3) pay attention to all signals
over evolutionary time, selection will favor receivers that ignore dishonest signals…
EXPECT:“forced honesty” in signaling, despite conflicting fitness interests…
Newt and Garter Snake
Rough skinned newt – Pacific aquatic newt, one of the most toxic animals ever identified
Can kill person within hours
Highly toxic to snakes, other amphibians, mammals and birds; One predator has evolved the resistance to newt TTX
Garter snakes can eat rough skinned newt without adverse effects
Tetrodatoxin (TTX) secreted and spread on the skin
Blocks sodium channels and pre-vents action potentials, destroys nervous function
Evolution of Communication
Senders produce 2 types of signals
1) honest
2) dishonest
Receivers give 3 types of response
1) pay attention to honest signal, ignore dishonest
2) pay attention to dishonest signal, ignore honest
3) pay attention to all signals
over evolutionary time, selection will favor receivers that ignore dishonest signals…
EXPECT:“forced honesty” in signaling, despite conflicting fitness interests…
Communication Schema
Cues produced by sender 1 contain information
I
I
V
Selection on receivers to pay attention (sensory systems)
I
I
V
Selection on sender to elicit response in receiver (sensory exploitation)
eX: bats hunt using ultrasound–>selection on moths to hear ultrasound–>moth ears evolve over time–>selection on male moths to produce acoustic signals to attract females (sensory exploitation)
Displacement activity
Displacement activities occur when an animal experiences high motivation for two or more conflicting behaviours: the resulting displacement activity is usually unrelated to the competing motivations. Birds, for example, may peck at grass when uncertain whether to attack or flee from an opponent
Development of honest communication signal
- Intention movement (eg snarling teeth, done before action to fortell it)
- Ritualization (becomes part of incomplete behavioral pattern, originally used for other purposes but now acts as signal
3.
Posion dart frog
Honest communication
Aposematic coloration - conspicuous coloring to honestly warn potential predators of danger or distaste
Alarm Calls
ubiquitous among animals - signal danger to conspecifics
ex: Vervet monkey shave 3 calls types-each indicates different predator
- Loud bark = leopard call -sends monkeys into trees
- Double cough = for eagles – causes looking up/seeking shelter
- “Chutter” = for snakes – causes standing on hind legs and scanning the ground
Development of honest communication signal
- Intention movement (eg snarling teeth, done before action to fortell it)
- Ritualization (becomes part of incomplete behavioral pattern, originally used for other purposes but now acts as signal
- Reliable communication signal
Semantic Communication
the systematic use of signals to refer to objects in the external world - using different signals to represent distinct objects in the environment
e. g. Vervet monkeys
ex: Vervet monkey shave 3 calls types-each indicates different predator
- Loud bark = leopard call -sends monkeys into trees
- Double cough = for eagles – causes looking up/seeking shelter
- “Chutter” = for snakes – causes standing on hind legs and scanning the ground
Language Theorists
Skinner - learned
Chomsky - innate
Pinker - natural selection
Vomeronasal
sensory organ of reptile, amphibian, patch of cells in nasal cavity used to detect pheromones/high-moisture odor
Pheromones – chemical messages meant to convey information to members of the same species
Detected by the vomeronasal organ – separate from the olfactory system – located in roof of themouth
Flehmen – “grimace”behavior that facilitates draw of pheromone to vomeronasal organ
Language Theorists
Skinner - learned
Chomsky - innate
Pinker - natural selection
Poulet Crickets
How do animals reliably detect, perceive and react to communication sounds in acoustically cluttered environments?
Female crickets locate males for mating by recognizing and localizing species-specific acoustic cues. Females use the temporal patterns of male songs to identify them
Phonotaxis = orienting based on acoustic cues
Crickets have ears in their front legs –> Males produce calling song by rubbing wings together –> Females phonotax to find male
Hypothesis: that recognition of the male’s species-specific song results in an increase in gain of the reactive steering (orientation) behavior of the female – and that this gain increase is not selective (once started, will occur with any sound)
Sisneros Steriod-depedent auditory
Steroid-dependent auditory plasticity leads to adaptive coupling of sender and receiver
Female Plainfin midshipman uses sound to locate male and pick male with which to breed
Infrasound/ultrasound – what and how animals use them
infrasound - sound waves with frequencies below the lower limit of human audibility
frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing; ex: bats use high-frequency cries to listen for weak ultrasonic echoes reflected back from objects in their flight path
infra
the pinnae are designed primarily for cooling the elephant (temperature control) and for conveying moods and messages to other elephants as a form of communication–>generate infrasound (sound waves with frequencies below the lower limit of human audibility)–> Elephants pass air through nasal passages–> generate infrasound–>infrasound travels miles with minimal degradation; allows communication over long distances
Anti-predator tactics
crypsis, warning coloration, scream, play dead, mimicry)
Selfish herd hypothesis
The selfish herd theory states that individuals within a population attempt to reduce their predation risk by putting other conspecifics between themselves and predator
Fish, such as minnows, school to reduce predation risk
Adelie penguins frequently wait to jump into the water until they have formed an aggregate to protect themselves from seal predation
Sisneros Steriod-depedent auditory
Steroid-dependent auditory plasticity leads to adaptive coupling of sender and receiver
Female Plainfin midshipman uses sound to locate male and pick male with which to breed
steroid hormones can induce an improvement in the
precision of temporal encoding
T and E2 treated fish show higher vector stength to higher frequencies than do controls
The hormone-induced increase in VS to higher frequencies matches the harmonics of the male’s mating hum.
Caves avian brood
Hosts of avian brood parasites have evolved egg signatures with elevated information content
Some brood parasites lay eggs that mimic (look like) host species’ eggs, making host detection of parasite eggs difficult.
In evolutionary arms race, host species should evolve ways tod etect parasite eggs.
Specific visual features on a female’s own eggs is a possible mechanism for a host female to recognize their own eggs and identify parasite eggs.
Identity “signature”
Do egg visual features (e.g. color, speckle pattern, luminance)of parasite hosts vary more among individuals than egg visual features in species that are not parasitized?
Entropy (randomness) was significantly higher in parasitized species than in unparasitized species.
Higher variability across individual’s eggs in parasitized species suggests that hosts have evolved mechanism to:1.Identify own eggs, thus identifying/rejecting parasite eggs2.Produce individual-specific eggs, thus impeding parasite evolution of egg mimicry.
Bertram temporal shifts
Call conspicuousness should therefore be a trade-off between attracting mates and predators (parasitoidflies)
Flies are most active during few hours after dusk
Most mating occurs at dawn
Male crickets may compensate for the conspicuousness of calling behavior by controlling their circadian cycling of call frequency, amplitude and duration
Males calling behavior was not different in the presence of 1) nothing, 2) a female cricket or 3) a female parasitoid fly
They do not respond to immediate presence of either potential mate or potential predator
Arms Race
Medicine resistant microbe
Arms race between humans and microbes
Rough-skin Newt — poisonous
Its skin glands excrete one of the most potent toxins found in nature
ingestion = Paralyze within minutes, organ shutdown within hours
pinhead = enough to kill a human
One could kill 100 people
Why should it be so many times more toxic to kill way too many prey factors? extreme
Gardner snake — driving extreme toxicity; selective pressure: as predator evolves to resist toxins, prey has to develop higher levels of toxin (arms race)
Sometimes slowed down, immobile from eating newt
Cost: the more resistant a snake, the more slowly it moves without toxin; tradeoff between speed and resistance level (more susceptible to their predators)
In 20th century, scientists began focusing on the chemicals microbes used to attack each other — could kill without harming — antibiotics
Russian prison system; skyrocket of prison rate since collapse of SU
Overcrowding, poor nutrition, poor sanitation
TB — can lie dormant for decades in a healthy person for decades, if immune system is weakened, microbes begin to proliferate and consume the lungs
Expels contagious droplets in speaking, coughing; present for hours
Drugs killed off most, left most resistant
Multi-drug resistant TB
Low quality, never finish
Second line drugs
Nearly half of all prescriptions in US=unnecessary or inappropriate
Antibiotics in animal feeds
More drug resistant microbes to the point where we won’t be resistant to the most deadly
More drugs launched, more resistance developed
Harmfulness of microbe dependent on method of transmittance
More mild = more easily transmittable
So harmful that if person can’t move, can be widely transmitted
Dropped in harmfulness with clean water access
We can domesticate these diseases to be less harmful; working with evolutions to subdue microbes
FIV/HIV; protective gene, less lethal strains
Mutation protecting against
Hiv infection; most ppl have receptors on their immune cells that allow HIV to dock and gain entry; ppl with mutation lack all or some of these receptors; HIV becomes impossible
10% of European caucasian; 700 years ago, Bubonic plague mutation
Symbiois; leaf-cutter ants, cut fresh vegetation, cultivate fungus
mold; white, waxy coating; wax=bacteria
Same bacteria producing half of all antibiotics;
Bacteria/mold arms race
Village/farm; contact with livestock=protection against allergies
High levels of microorganisms in stables help prime child’s immune system for life
Dilution hypothesis
offset chance that one will be killed
butterflies
birds
Bat-moth evolutionary arms race
Moths developed an early warning system to defend against the new way bats attack. Moths have evolved ears which allow them to hear bat echolocation, execute evasive flight manoeuvres and avoid being eaten. Some bats in turn improved their offensive weaponry by evolving stealth echolocation – that is, echolocation at frequencies and intensities that are inaudible to moths. Some moths, already equipped with ears, have in turn evolved ultrasonic clicks of their own that are used defensively during a bat attack.
Habitat and nest selection in aphids
aphids compete for spots near midribs of leaves
Larger leaves are preferred but in short supply
Females regularly fought for access to large leaves
optimal spot near basal
will fight all day for spot, but may not be worth it because the reproductive success of 2 is pretty similar to 1
convergent and divergent evolution
divergent evolution and occurs when one species diverges into multiple descendant species
Convergent evolution occurs when species have different ancestral origins but have developed similar features
Homing in pigeons
ability to find its way home over extremely long distances
Magnetoreception (also magnetoception) is a sense which allows an organism to detect a magnetic field to perceive direction, altitude or locatio
Optimal foraging – assessing site quality
Variety of animals will “choose” the “patch” of food that offers the most energy and is most stableBut often continue to sample less profitable less reliable patches
Chipmunks exploit one patch of seeds - the one that is most reliableIf present multiple seed trays, consistent feeding behavior developsMost abundant tray is sampled most often. If abundance is decreased, the less reliable trays are searched more often
Optimal Foraging constraints
Competition – spending energy depending on chances of losing it to another animal
Salmon are less likely to give a long chase to prey in higher density populations – Longer chase =more likely to lose prey to competitor
Mechanisms of Acoustic Communication
- Vocalizations – produced by respiratory structures songs/calls/speech
ex: mammals, birds, fish, amphibians - Stridulation – rubbing appendages together limbs or wings or both
ex: insects - Banging/striking – hitting objects stamping feet/hooves ex: rabbits, hoofed mammals, beavers
Homing in pigeons
ability to find its way home over extremely long distances
Magnetoreception (also magnetoception) is a sense which allows an organism to detect a magnetic field to perceive direction, altitude or locatio
internal biological clock = big role
reset by placing in closed room with artificial lighting
can become clock-shifted due to light routine
if released, bird will fly as if the sun has just come up
due east, as if sun has come up in east
Butterfly migration patterns
fly during day –> use sun as compass, filtered out UV light, could no longer fly
wavelengths critical for navigation
Butterfly migration patterns
fly during day –> use sun as compass, filtered out UV light, could no longer fly
wavelengths critical for navigation
Pinker why we well suited for language
- “cause and effect” thinking
- Long childhood/biparental care – opportunityto learn complex behavioral tasks from adults
- Put children together w/o language, they willdevelop their own
- Our ancestors split from chimp ancestors 200,000-300,000 generations ago. Even though chimps don’t use language, it could have evolved slowly in our lineage.
Uniqueness of language
Expressive power – ability to convey an unlimited number and complexity of ideas from one person to another
Abstract symbols – word “duck” does not look like a duck – yet we can all learn to associate word with item
Symbol combination with grammar – infinite use of finite media
Abstract categories - “subject”, “noun”“verb”, “adjective”
Native/other language window
Perceptual discrimination of native language phonemes develops between 6 and 12 months
Types of eyes
Simple
Camera
Compound
Pinhole
