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Biomechanics > Exam I > Flashcards

Exam I Flashcards

1
Q

what are a couple examples of external forces?

A

gravity and body weight

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2
Q

what is the difference between stress and pressure?

A

pressure has no vectors (affects whole system); stress has vectors (affects specific area and direction)

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3
Q

what are the 5 different types of loads?

A

(1) tension
(2) compression
(3) bending
(4) shear
(5) torsion

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4
Q

what substances does stress apply to?

A

solids

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5
Q

what substances does pressure apply to?

A

fluids and gases

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6
Q

is temperature a scalar, vector, or tensor quantity?

A

scalar

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7
Q

is velocity a scalar, vector, or tensor quantity?

A

vector

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8
Q

is mass a scalar, vector, or tensor quantity?

A

scalar

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9
Q

is pressure a scalar, vector, or tensor quantity?

A

scalar

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10
Q

is force a scalar, vector, or tensor quantity?

A

vector

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11
Q

is stress a scalar, vector, or tensor quantity?

A

tensor

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12
Q

what is the difference between a scalar, vector, and tensor quantity?

A

(1) scalar: magnitude
(2) vector: magnitude and direction
(3) tensor: magnitude, direction and plane

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13
Q

what are the 3 types of stress a solid can undergo?

A

(1) compression
(2) tension
(3) shear

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14
Q

what is strain?

A

the change of an object in relation to it’s initial shape

ALWAYS a PERCENTAGE of deformation

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15
Q

what is the difference between elastic and plastic strain?

A

elastic: deformation occurs but returns to original shape once external force is removed
plastic: deformation occurs but does not return to original shape

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16
Q

which human tissues have elastic properties? which tissues have plastic properties?

A

ALL tissues in the human body have both elastic and plastic properties

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17
Q

what does the yield point on the stress/strain curve signify?

A

where the structure goes from elastic to plastic (permanent deformation begins to occur)

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18
Q

what does the slope of the model of elasticity on the stress/strain curve indicate?

A

the stiffness of the material

  • more vertical line indicates a stiffer material
  • more horizontal indicates a less stiff material
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19
Q

an object that has a larger slope on the stress/strain curve indicates what?

A

more stiffness; the less likely an object is to give in before it tears

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20
Q

where is the ‘ultimate stress’ point on the stress/strain curve? what does this mean?

A

the highest point on the curve (highest stress); once you pass the ‘ultimate stress’ point, less than 50% of the structure is intact (micro-failure)

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21
Q

what occurs at the end of the stress/strain curve where the stress completely drops off?

A

complete failure (complete tear)

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22
Q

what are two factors that lead to a structure being more stiff?

A

(1) greater density of collagen fiber bonds

(2) greater covalent cross-links between fibers

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23
Q

what are the concepts of fragility vs. toughness?

A

toughness is the ability to absorb energy; fragile structures don’t absorb energy well, while tough ones do

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24
Q

what is resiliency?

A

the ability to absorb energy when elastically deformed and RELEASE it (think basketball against a wall; tendons use SSC)

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25
Q

what is dampening?

A

the ability to absorb energy when elastically deformed but doesn’t release it; opposite of resiliency

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26
Q

what happens to resiliency overtime?

A

it decreases; this leads to mechanical fatigue; if you keep loading a ligament the resiliency eventually decreases

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27
Q

regarding mechanical wear, how does stress, force and surface area relate?

A

Stress = force/area

this means that as surface area decreases (such as erosion of a tendon), the force on that material increases

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28
Q

what are some ways to recover resiliency and prevent injury?

A

(1) decrease stress

(2) allow more rest time

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29
Q

what is mechanical wearing in regards to human? how does it occur?

A

removal of the superficial layers of a structure; friction or corrosion of tissues (inflammation, cortisone injections, friction between tissues)

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30
Q

what type of tissue deformation occurs without permanent structural damage? what type of tissue deformation does cause permanent damage?

A

elastic: no permanent damage
plastic: permanent damage

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31
Q

what are 3 ways fatigue can occur?

A

(1) repetitive low magnitude loading
(2) loss of material resiliency overtime
(3) mechanical wearing

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32
Q

define viscosity

A

the ability of a fluid to resist flow

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33
Q

what is viscoelasticity?

A

a material that displays viscous and elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation (a material that has both fluid and solid properties)

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34
Q

what parts of musculoskeletal system are viscoelastic?

A

all parts (tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bone, etc.)

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35
Q

what has an effect on viscoelastic tissues? (5)

A

(1) how long the load is applied
(2) how quickly the load is applied
(3) temperature
(4) hysteresis
(5) thixotropy

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36
Q

what is creep?

A

the continued deformation of a material under constant load over time

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37
Q

what is the Stress-Relaxation response in regards to deformation?

A

a material held at a constant length will experience a decreased magnitude of stress over time
(ex. hold a hamstring stretch for 5 minutes, at first the stretch is tough, but then becomes easier)

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38
Q

what happens to viscoelastic tissues under higher temperatures?

A

will deform quicker and relax easier; cooling tissues has inverse effect

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39
Q

what is thixotrophy?

A

viscoelastic property in which the system displays mechanical properties of a gel when undisturbed, and properties of a liquid when moved (vibration and motion will make a structure easier to move)

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40
Q

what is hysteresis?

A

behavior of a tissue will depend upon what you were doing before the load is applied (go to play soccer – warm-up beforehand and change tissue behavior during game)

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41
Q

what does adult hyaline cartilage do? (3)

A

(1) provides bearing surface for synovial joints
(2) increases surface loading area
(3) provides friction-less gliding surface

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42
Q

what makes up 70-85% of the weight of cartilage?

A

water

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43
Q

what type of substance makes up cartilage?

A

type II collagen

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44
Q

what is the purpose of elastin?

A

helps recoil

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45
Q

how are collagen fibers oriented in the deep zone of cartilage? superficial zone?

A

deep zone: vertical orientation (compressive force)

superficial zone: horizontal orientation (shear force)

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46
Q

what are the two macromolecules that make up cartilage? what’s each function?

A

(1) collagen - provides shape and tensile properties (meshwork)
(2) proteoglycan - resists compressive forces

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47
Q

what type of charge is found on proteoglycans that push them closer together and increase the compressive stiffness of the cartilage?

A

negative

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48
Q

what type of collagen is considered the strongest type?

A

type I

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49
Q

what type of collagen is present after an injury and eventually matures into type I collagen?

A

type III

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50
Q

type I collagen is the primary component of what tissues?

A

tendons and ligaments

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51
Q

type II collagen is the primary component of what

A

cartilage, meniscus, disc

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52
Q

why do tendonopathy injuries result in pain at the attachment sites?

A

because the tendon is close to the periostium, which has a nerve innervation

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53
Q

when force is applied to cartilage, what resists the compressive forces? what resists the sheer forces?

A

proteoglycans resist compressive forces, while the collagen resists sheer forces (due to lateral displacement)

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54
Q

how does cartilage get its nutrition since it’s a-vascular for the most part?

A

compressive force causes fluid to leak out and then back in when the force is removed (motion provides nutrition to joint)

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55
Q

at what percentage of stretch will an ACL fail?

A

8%

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56
Q

what happens when ligaments/tendons are immobilized?

A

the ability for that structure to absorb energy is significantly decreased

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57
Q

what does a decrease of GAGs in cartilage result in?

A

decreased GAGs = decreased stiffness

the cartilage becomes weaker

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58
Q

what effect does exercise have on cartilage? (2)

A

(1) increased surface area

2) increased GAGs in deep zones (increased ability to resist compressive forces

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59
Q

what type of loading is ideal for the nutrition of cartilage tissue?

A

cyclic, intermittent motion

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60
Q

which scenario is more likely to cause deformation of cartilage?

(1) Adding an extra 10 pounds of force to cartilage 24/7 (think an obese person carrying excess weight)
(2) squatting 315 for reps 3x per week

A

scenario #1; low magnitude, constant loading is much more likely to cause damage

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61
Q

is the knee, hip, or ankle most resistant to OA?

A

the ankle

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62
Q

what can be said about the elastic/plastic properties of cartilage (type II collagen)?

A

there is no plastic range for type II collagen

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63
Q

what is the strongest type of bone?

A

cortical

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64
Q

where are cortical and trabecular bone located?

A

cortical bone is the outer portion of bone and trabecular bone is within cortical bone

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65
Q

what bone can strain more before it breaks?

A

trabecular bone; cortical bone doesn’t deform much, and suffers much less strain before breaking

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66
Q

what makes up 60-70% of bones?

A

minerals (calcium and phosphate)

67
Q

what musculoskeletal tissue is the most vascular?

A

bone; trabecular bone is more vascular than cortical bone

68
Q

what type of bone is OA more prevalent in?

A

trabecular bone

69
Q

what type of load does bone handle well? the worst?

A

bone handles compression loads the best, while shear and torsion loads aren’t tolerated as well

70
Q

what is wolf’s law?

A

bone density increases in areas where stress is applied (if you don’t use it, you lose it)

71
Q

what demographics typically have lower bone density?

A

women and elderly

72
Q

what is anisotropy as it relates to bone?

A

bone is strongest when load is applied parallel to trabecular bone and weakest when applied perpendicular

73
Q

how do muscle contractions help reduce stress tension in bones?

A

muscle contractions pull origin and insertion closer together, causing compression as opposed to tension

74
Q

do bones handle tension or compression better?

A

compression

75
Q

what is one reason stress fractures are thought to occur?

A

in areas where tension stress on the bones is higher

76
Q

when muscles fatigue and they can’t contract properly what can happen to bone?

A

when muscles fatigue, they can’t contract and compressive strength is reduced, while tension strength is increased; this is why fatigue leads to stress fractures

77
Q

is bone stronger when it’s loaded quickly or stronger?

A

quickly; bone can handle a higher stress when applied fast than a lower stress applied slow

78
Q

when does an avulsion fracture occur?

A

when the tendon is stiffer than bone when loaded, the bone fails before tendon (seen more in slow loading)

79
Q

what are the stages of healing for a tendon/ligament? (4)

A

Days 2-4: cellular stage
Days 5-21: fibroplastic stage
Days: 21-60: consolidation stage
Days 60-360: maturation stage

80
Q

what should be done during the cellular stage of ligament/tendon healing?

A

protection from any tensile loads; union is fragile

81
Q

what should be done during the fibroplastic stage of ligament/tendon healing?

A

low tensile loads, slow PROM; low tensile stress help organize/align collagen fibrils

82
Q

what should be done during the consolidation stage of ligament/tendon healing?

A

progressively increase tensile forces, AROM/PROM

83
Q

what should be done during the maturation stage of ligament/tendon healing?

A

more aggressive but progressive increase

tensile forces via AROM/PROM and; resistive exercises

84
Q

what are the active components of skeletal muscle?

A

actin and myosin found in the sarcomere

85
Q

sarcomeres can only create what type of force within itself?

A

tension

86
Q

what are the passive components of skeletal muscle?

A

(1) parallel elastic components

(2) series elastic components

87
Q

what are some example of parallel elastic components?

A

epimysium, perimysium, endomysium

88
Q

what are some example of series elastic components?

A

titin, tendons

89
Q

what is the ratio of actin to myosin in a sarcomere?

A

6 actin: 1 myosin

90
Q

when a muscle contraction occurs, what structures are pulled closer together?

A

z-discs

91
Q

what is the concept of the length tension curve? (as it relates to active tension)

A

there is an ideal length where muscle can generate the most force; muscles can’t generate high forces when the muscle is fully stretched, nor when it is fully contracted

92
Q

what is the active force per unit of cross-sectional area?

A

30 N/cm2

93
Q

what is the concept of the length tension curve? (as it relates to passive tension)

A

tension increases as the sarcomere length increases

94
Q

is titin an active or passive component?

A

passive; titin functions most during passive stretching and eccentric contraction

95
Q

what is the purpose of titin?

A

to maintain the structural integrity of the sarcomere; titin is attached to myosin, and wraps around actin to elastically increase passive stiffness

96
Q

what are endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium primarily composed of?

A

type 1 collagen

97
Q

what is the relationship between connective tissue in muscle and the vascular components?

A

nerve and blood supply are guided by connective tissue within muscles; more connective tissue allowed for improved healing capabilities

98
Q

what are the major roles of connective tissue in muscles? (4)

A

(1) structural role to cover surface of muscle cells, bundles, and muscles
(2) passively transfer forces from muscle to tendon
(3) provide conduit for blood supply and nerves
(4) generate passive tensile resistance to stretch

99
Q

what is the myotendinous junction? what’s its purpose?

A 
specialized structure to transfer force from muscle to tendon
Purpose:
(1) increase surface area
(2) reduce stress
(3) improves viscioelastic properties
(4) ready muscle for contraction
100
Q

how does isometrically contracting a muscle affect the subsequent lengthening of that muscle?

A

a muscle that is preconditioned with an isometric contraction can lengthen more before it ruptures when compared to a muscle that wasn’t preconditioned

101
Q

does a muscle that is contacted or relaxed tolerate more stress before rupturing?

A

a contracted muscle can resist more outside load (tensing muscles before a car accident better protects your muscles)

102
Q

where in the muscle do tears most commonly occur? what types of muscles are more prone to tearing?

A

(1) distal insertion at the muscule-tendon junction (typically because the distal insertion has less surface area)
(2) long, biarticular muscles are more likely to tear

103
Q

what are the 3 types of acute injuries to the muscle-tendon unit?

A

(1) laceration (shear stress)
(2) contusion (compression stress)
(3) strain (tension stress)

104
Q

where are tears and overuse injuries common?

A

tears are much more common in the muscle, while overuse injuries are more common in tendons

105
Q

how does muscle fatigue lead to an increased risk of a muscle tear?

A

as a muscle fatigues it fires (contracts) less, thus it has less protective ability

106
Q

what happens to the sarcomere and components during isometric contractions?

A

(1) sarcomere shortens

(2) series component lengthens

107
Q

what happens to the sarcomere and components during eccentric contractions?

A

(1) sarcomere lengthens

(2) series component lengthens

108
Q

what happens to the sarcomere and components during concentric contractions?

A

(1) sarcomere shortens

(2) parallel component shortens

109
Q

where do muscle strains most frequently occur?

A

muscle-tendon junction

110
Q

what is the advantage of pennated muscles?

A

power/strength production

111
Q

what is the advantage of fusiform muscles?

A

high shortening velocity

112
Q

what is the relationship between the number of muscle fibers and force generation?

A

the more muscle fibers, the greater force can be produced

113
Q

what is the relationship between the muscle fiber orientation and force generation?

A

the more parallel fibers are to the tendon the better the ability to generate force
*Note: pennate muscle fibers may have slightly reduced force, but pennation allows for more fibers, which typically outweigh the loss of force due to pennation

114
Q

do short or long muscle fibers generate more force throughout a larger ROM?

A

long muscle fibers

115
Q

how much can muscle fibers shorten?

A

between 30 – 50% of their

length

116
Q

do short or long muscle fibers have a greater muscle shortening velocity?

A

long muscle fibers

117
Q

do concentric or eccentric contractions use more ATP?

A

concentric contractions use more ATP; more muscle activation

118
Q

do concentric or eccentric contractions create a higher amount of tension?

A

eccentric contractions (think elongation of muscle)

119
Q

why does eccentric exercise cause more DOMS than concentric exercise?

A

eccentric exercise causes more damage to the connective tissue within a muscle than concentric exercise does

120
Q

when is the relationship between force and velocity?

A

inverse relationship; as force decreases, velocity increases (and vice versa)

121
Q

what is the size principle?

A

smaller motor neurons are recruited before larger motor neurons (smaller muscles before larger muscles)

122
Q

what is rate coding?

A

the rate at which motor units fire

123
Q

when a limb is immobilized or activity level is decreased, what type of muscle fibers atrophy more significantly?

A

type I muscle fibers

124
Q

how do higher joint speeds affect concentric and eccentric activity?

A

high joint speed reduces tension in concentric activity and increase tension in eccentric activity (because higher speeds require more deceleration)

125
Q

what type of muscle fibers do people tend to lose with age? what type of tissue do people tend to gain with age?

A

type II muscle fibers; increased connective tissue

126
Q

what is stability?

A

a resistance to the change in state

127
Q

what is posture?

A

the relative position of segments

128
Q

what is the difference between static and mechanical stability?

A

static stability is when the line of gravity falls within the base of support
mechanical stability is the ability of an object to maintain equilibrium

129
Q

what is joint stability?

A

maintain position of the articulating structures of a joint (not dislocating)

130
Q

what is the line of gravity?

A

another way to say the force vector of gravity

131
Q

what is the center of pressure?

A

the average location of foot to floor forces

132
Q

what are 3 aspects involved with ideal standing posture?

A

(1) minimal muscle force
(2) minimal stress on joitns and CT
(3) maximal stability

133
Q

what are most deviations in posture caused by in the frontal plane?

A

scoliosis

134
Q

what is coxa valga? what can this result in?

A

an angle of inclination of the femur >135 degrees; a functionally longer leg

135
Q

what is coxa vara? what can this result in?

A

an angle of inclination of the femur <120 degrees; a functionally shorter leg

136
Q

how does lordosis affect moment arm?

A

normal lordosis small moment arm

extreme lordosis: large moment arm

137
Q

what are two factors that contribute to ideal standing posture in the sagittal plane?

A

(1) LOG falls near virtual axes

(2) minimized moment arm

138
Q

in the sagittal plane for the atlanto-occipital joint, where is the LOG? what is the external moment?

A

anterior; flexion

139
Q

in the sagittal plane for the cervical spine, where is the LOG? what is the external moment?

A

posterior; extension

140
Q

in the sagittal plane for the thoracic spine, where is the LOG? what is the external moment?

A

anterior; flexion

141
Q

in the sagittal plane for the lumbar spine, where is the LOG? what is the external moment?

A

posterior; extension

142
Q

in the sagittal plane for the SI joint, where is the LOG? what is the external moment?

A

anterior; nutation

143
Q

in the sagittal plane for the hip joint, where is the LOG? what is the external moment?

A

posterior; extension

144
Q

in the sagittal plane for the knee joint, where is the LOG? what is the external moment?

A

anterior; extension

145
Q

in the sagittal plane for the ankle joint, where is the LOG? what is the external moment?

A

anterior; dorsiflexion

146
Q

why do deviations from ideal posture affect the entire body?

A

the body is a closed kinematic chain, so altering one segment affects everything down the chain

147
Q

when are postural muscle active in static posture?

A

always; they prevent excessive sway

148
Q

what muscles work to resist gravity in relation to the line of gravity?

A

posterior to the line of gravity

149
Q

what are the 3 components of the neurological system that contribute to balance?

A

(1) visual
(2) vestibular
(3) sensory-motor

150
Q

what are 3 aspects required to control balance?

A

(1) sensing
(2) processing
(3) responding

151
Q

what are examples of sensors in the body?

A

(1) mechanoreceptors: located in joints capsules. muscles, skin
(2) vision
(3) vestibular

152
Q

what sensor is the fastest to respond in the body?

A

mechanoreceptors

153
Q

what is the processor of the human body?

A

the CNS

154
Q

what responds in the human body to sensory input?

A

muscle activate

155
Q

what is perturbation?

A

sudden mechanical change that threatens stability

156
Q

what are 2 ways in which the body responds to perturbation?

A

(1) Feed-forward (Proactive)

2) Feedback control (reactive

157
Q

where does rotation occur? where does translation occur?

A

rotation occurs in a plane, about an axis

translation occurs within a plane, along an axis

158
Q

for all 3 levers, what is in the middle?

A

1st class: axis
2nd class: resistance (external force)
3rd: effort (internal force)

159
Q

what are the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd class levers in the body?

A

1st: triceps, spine
2nd: gastroc/soleus (MTP joint)
3rd: everything else in the body

160
Q

what are collagen and elastin designed to resist?

A

tension

161
Q

do ligaments or tendons have more elastin? which structure has more stiffness?

A

ligaments generally contain more elastin
than tendons making them less stiff and
just slightly weaker than tendons

162
Q

are tendons or ligaments more resilient?

A

tendons; absorb and release energy better than ligaments

163
Q

based on the composition of tendons and ligaments, why are tendons stiffer than ligaments?

A

tendons have more type I collagen and less proteoglycans than ligaments

164
Q

what can cause the mechanical failure of cartilage? (2)

A

(1) repeated shear stress

(2) abnormal compressive joint loading

Biomechanics (4 decks)

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