Exam I Flashcards
1st Law of Motion (Law of Intertia)
A body in motion tends to stay in motion unless acted on by another force.
2nd Law of Motion (Law of Acceleration)
Acceleration of a body is in the direction of and proportional to the force (f), and that acceleration (a) is inversely proportional to the mass (m) of the body.
F = m x a
3rd Law of Motion (Law of Reciprocal Action)
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction; objects exert opposite forces on one another.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Energy moves toward greater entropy or randomness.
Third Law of Thermodynamics
Absolute zero (0K or -273.15 C) is void of all energy.
As a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease, and the entropy of a system approaches minimum value.
Force
The amount of energy required to move an object.
Force = mass x acceleration
Pressure
Force over an area. Increasing the area in which force is applied results in a lower pressure.
P = f / a
Work
Transfer of energy by a force acting on an object as it is displaced.
Work (w) = force (f) x distance (m)
Energy
The capacity to do work (potential energy) or the exertion of force (kinetic energy).
Power
The rate at which work is done.
Amount of energy transferred or converted per unit time.
Force SI Units
Newton = 102 g weight
Pressure SI Units
Pascal (Pa) = 102 g / 1 m2
Work SI Units
Joule
Energy SI Units
Joule
Power SI Units
Watts
Radiation
Electromagnetic transfer of energy away from a warm body.
Largest contributor to heat loss.
Convection
Heat creates air currents. Bodies transfer kinetic energy to air molecules on the surface of the skin. Warmed air molecules rise and colder molecules replace them.
The second largest contributor to heat loss.
Conduction
Transfer of heat via contact with a less warm object. Heat exchange from high concentration to low concentration.
Smallest contributor to heat loss.
Evaporation
Heat loss includes moisture evaporation from the patient’s skin and exhaled water vapor.
Latent heat evaporation is the amount of energy per unit mass required to convert a liquid into the vapor phase.
Mitigating Radiation in the OR
Cover the head, a major contributor to heat loss.
Mitigating Convection in the OR
Blankets, forced air warming device, prevent draft.
Mitigating Conduction in the OR
Warm OR table, cover the table with blankets.
Mitigating Evaporation in the OR
HMEs, only prep areas needed.
Scalar Values
Magnitude only.
Possess no motion.
Includes mass, energy, and work.
Vector Values
Magnitude and direction.
Expresses motion and is described by force, speed, velocity, acceleration, distance, and displacement.
Accuracy
Closeness of a measured value to a standard or known value.
Precision
Closeness of two or more measurements to each other.
How can accuracy be improved?
Recalibration (ex. zeroing lines).
Maintain consistent experimental conditions.
Control external factors that can introduce variability.
How can precision be improved?
Education on the proper use of the device to use the device consistently.
Specific Gravity
The ratio of the density of a substance compared to the density of water.
Sg = density of object / density of water
Density
The measurement of how tightly a material is packed together.
D = mass / volume
Ex. g/dl
Baricity
The ratio of density of LAs compared to CSF.
Hypobaric
<0.999
Achieved by mixing LA with sterile water.
Rises to the highest point in the spinal column.
Isobaric
1.000
Achieved by mixing LA with NS or CSF.
Remains relatively at the site of injection.
Hyperbaric
> 1.0015
Achieved by mixing LA with 5% or 8% dextrose.
Sinks to lowest point in the spinal column.
Ions
Atoms that have gained or lost electrons from their natural composition.
Electron
Negatively charged subatomic particle.
Anion
Gained +1 electron and is negatively charged.
Ex. Cl-
Cation
Lost +1 electron and is positively charged.
Ex. Na+
Anion Gap
The imbalance of cations and anions
[Na + K] - [Cl + HCO3]
Normal = 8-12 mEq/L (with a normal albumin of 4).
Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen atom with slight (+) charge is attracted to a (-) atom/molecule.
Needs to be in a polar covalent bond.
Covalent Bonds
Share electrons rather than gain or lose them.
Can hold up to triple bonds.
Tends to be bonding between atoms that share similar electronegativity.
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
Equal sharing of electrons.
Strongest bond.
Polar Covalent Bonds
Unequal sharing of electrons.
Second-strongest bond.
Ionic Bonds
One atom lost 1+ atoms (cations +), and the other atoms gains one or more electrons (anions -).
Functional Groups
The portion of the compound that undergoes chemical transformations or reactions.
They can be grouped into several classes with unique physical and chemical properties.
Hydrocarbons
A molecule that is made up of solely carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Saturated Hydrocarbon
Single bonded carbon chain with all available carbon bonds attached to hydrogen.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbon
One or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms.
Alkane
Hydrocarbon containing only single-bonded atoms.
Ex. of Alkanes
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Anesthesia: Halothane (alkane + halogen)
Halothane
Replace the H atoms with the halogens.
Not explosive, but it causes hepatotoxicity and cardiac depression.
Alkene
Hydrocarbon with double-bonded carbon.
Alkyne
Hydrocarbon with a triple-bonded carbon.
Cycloalkanes
Saturated hydrocarbons in a ring.
Ex. Cyclopropane
Arene
One or more double bonds in a benzene (hydrocarbons) ring (aromatic hydrocarbons).
Groups without carbonyls (Heteroatomic)
Ethers
Alcohols
Epoxides
Groups with carbonyls (Carbonyl Compounds)
Aldehydes
Ketones
Carboxylic acids
Carboxylic acid derivatives (esters)
Acid Anhydrides
Acyl Halides
Amides
Alcohols
R-OH
Contains a hydroxyl group (-OH)
Ex. of Alcohols
Cholesterol
Methanol
Ethanol (ethane + alcohol).
Ether
R-O-R’ or C-O-C
Oxygen single bonded to 2 carbons.
Ex. of Ethers
Inhalation anesthetics
Diethyl ether = first inhalation anesthetic.
Ex. of Halogenated Ethers
Isoflurane
Desflurane
Sevoflurane
Ester
Also called carboxylic ester because it is derived from a carboxylic acid.
A carbon group replaces hydrogen.
-COOC
Ex. of Esters
LAs containing 1 “i”
Benzocaine
Cocaine
Procaine
Carbonyl
Carbon double bonded to oxygen (C=O)
Carboxyl Group
Carbon double bonded to (C=O) bonded to a hydroxyl group (-OH) = (C=O-OH)
Carbonyl + Hydroxyl
Carboxylic Acid
A compound that contains a carboxyl group (C=O-OH).
Considered a combination of two functional groups.
Ex. alcohol + carbonyl (C=O + -OH)
Amines
Carbon-nitrogen bonds (called an amino group).
N can be bonded to 1-4 carbons (primary to quaternary).
Ex. of Amines
Atropine
Glycopyrrolate
Amino Acids
Amine + carboxylic acid
Molecules contain both amine (carbon to nitrogen bond) and a carboxylic (C=O-OH) functional group.
Amides
Molecules containing nitrogen atoms connected to a carbonyl group.
Nitrogen + carbonyl group
R-C=O-N-R
Ex. of Amides
LAs with 2 “i’s”
Lidocaine
Prilocaine
Bupivicaine
Ketones
Carbonyl group boned to two carbons.
(C-C=O-C)
Aldehyde
Carbonyl group bonded to a hydrogen.
(C-C=O-H)
Thiols
Contains a sulfhydryl group (-SH) bonded to a tetrahedral carbon.
Disulfide Bonds
(-S-S-)
Important in protein folding.
Phase 1 Metabolism
Metabolic process that introduces or uncovers polar functional groups through oxidation, reduction, and/or hydrolysis.
Typically uses CYP450
Uses enzymes called oxidases to unmask or introduce polar groups on the drug.
OIL RIG
Oxidation is loss = 1+
Reduction is gain = 1-
Electrons are negatively charged, so the gain of electrons leads to a reduction of charge.
Oxidation
Loss of electrons = 1+
The ion or molecule that accepts electrons is called the oxidizing agent - by accepting electrons, it oxidizes the other element.
Reduction
Gain of electrons = 1-
The ion or molecule that donates electrons is called a reducing agent - by giving electrons, it reduces the other element.
Hydrolysis
Most carbohydrates and triglycerides are metabolized through hydrolysis.
Phase II Metabolism
Metabolic processes that involve the conjugation of functional groups with endogenous polar molecules.
Ex. Sulfation, glucuronidation, amino acid glutathione.
Conjugation
Forming glucuronides, sulphuric esters, sulphamates.
Results in the production of compounds that are more ionized and more water soluble than parent compounds.
Glycolysis
Process of breaking down of glucose into pyruvate (yields 2 ATP).
Gluconeogenesis
Process of generating glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.
Glycogenesis
Process of converting glucose molecules into glycogen.
Glycogenolysis
Process of breaking down glycogen into glucose.
Citric Acid Cycle Totals
38 ATP
6 CO2
10 NADHs
2 FADH2s
Oxidative Phosphorylation
It involves the electron transport chain.
1 molecule of glucose = 32 ATP
Requires oxygen.
Beta Oxidation
Utilization of fats as an energy source.
Yields 129 ATP per fatty acid molecule.
Yields ketones.
Urea Cycle
A process in the liver that converts toxic ammonia into less harmful urea.
Urea is excreted in the urine.
Where does ammonia come from?
By-product of amino acid catabolism.
Name two parts that make up organic molecules
Carbon
Hydrogen
Why are functional groups important?
They are the compound that undergoes chemical transformations or reactions.
3 Types of Steriods
Cholesterol
Testosterone
Estrogen
Anesthetic agents are considered what kind of ethers?
Halogenated ethers
4 Categories of Biomolecules
Proteins
Lipids
Carbs
Nucleic acids
How are carbs classified?
Mono-
Di-
Poly-
-Saccharides
Cis-Isomer
Hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the two carbon atoms.
Double bond creates a bend in fatty acid chains.
Liquids at room temp.
Trans-Isomer
Hydrogen atoms are on the opposite sides of the two carbon atoms.
Double bond does NOT cause a bend in the fatty acid chain.
Solid at room temp.
Most carbs/trigs are metabolized through what type of reaction?
Hydrolysis
Three ways proteins are denatured?
Heat
Acidity
Heavy metal ions
RNA
Contains ribose as a base.
Has an extra hydroxyl group.
Thymine
Single strand
3 Types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Examples of Carbonyl Groups
Amides
Carboxylic acids
Aldehydes
Ketones
Nucleotides are made up of what 3 parts?
Phosphate group
Nitrogenous base
Pentose sugar
What type of molecule is ATP?
Nucleic acid
DNA
Contains deoxyribose as a base.
DNA has uracil
Double-strand
Bonds in organic compounds
Covalent
Bonds in inorganic compounds
Ionic
Chiral
Cannot be superimposed.
Ex. Hands
Achiral
Can be superimposed.
Ex. Water bottle
Isomers
Compounds that contain the same number and types of atoms but differ in how those atoms are arranged in space.
Constitutional (Structural) Isomers
Same molecular formula but a different connectivity.
Same molecular formula, but different bonding arrangement amon the atoms.
Stereoisomers
Identical molecular formula and arrangement of atoms; however, they differ in spacial orientation.
Includes: diastereomers and enantiomers
Enantiomers
Stereoisomers that are mirror images but not superimposable.
If the carbon is attached to two of the same atom, it is achiral and may be superimposable.
Racemic mixtures of drugs, 50% of each enantiomer.
Dextrorotatory (d, i)
Rotates light in a clockwise direction.
Ex. Dextrose
Levorotatory (l, -)
Rotates light in a counterclockwise direction.
Ex. Levalbuterol
Enantiomer Nomenclature
Configured around a stereocenter as R (right-handed; rectus) or S (left-handed; sinister).
Ex. S-Epinphrine + R-Epinephrine
Diastonomers
Stereoisomers that are NOT superimposable and are NOT mirror images.
Ex. Cis/Trans-isomers
3 Components of Amino Acids
Amino group
Carboxyl group
Side chain R group
