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Neurobiology > Exam I > Flashcards

Exam I Flashcards

1
Q

Who used the silver stain to study the nervous system, developed the neuron doctrine, and is known as a pioneer in neurobiology?

A

Ramon y Cajal

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2
Q

Neurons are the elementary signaling elements of the nervous system

A

Neuron doctrine

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3
Q

The oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells and enters the skull.

A

The brainstem

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4
Q

What is the brain stem responsible for?

A

Automatic survival functions

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5
Q

What are the three major regions of the brain stem?

A

Medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain

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6
Q

Which parts of the brain stem serve important functions in motor movement, particularly movements of the eye, and auditory/visual processing?

A

Midbrain and pons

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7
Q

-functions are involuntary or done without thought (autonomic nervous system)
- we would not be able to live without this
- helps regulate blood pressure and breathing
- brain surgeons are extremely cautious around this area

A

Medulla oblongata

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8
Q

-part of the hindbrain (ancient rear part of the brain)
-acts as a bridge and has nerve fibers connecting the cerebellum to the medulla
-main function is to carry relay signals from the cerebrum down to the cerebellum and medulla
-takes sensory signals up to the thalamus
-mostly involved in motor movement

A

Pons

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9
Q

Consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons and the cerebellum, which control respiration and movement among other things

A

The hind brain

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10
Q

-brains sensory switchboard located on top of the brain stem
-directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
- relays all senses to the cerebral cortex, except olfactory senses
-consists of white matter

A

Thalamus

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11
Q

-nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
-“traffic cops of the brain”
-thought to be associated with narcolepsy

A

Reticular formation

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12
Q

What happens when you yawn?

A

Jaw muscles contract, stimulating the reticular formation and encourage wakefulness

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13
Q

-the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem
-helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

A

Cerebellum

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14
Q

Disease that is characterized by muscle weakness and ataxia (loss of balance and coordination)

Primarily targets the cerebellum and does not involve parts of the brain involved with thinking.

Hereditary disease

A

Friedreichs ataxia

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15
Q

-regulates levels of iron inside mitochondria
- acts like a storage depot for iron, releasing it only when it is needed

A

Frataxin protein

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16
Q

What is the cause of FA?

A

-when frataxin is missing or defective, free iron accumulates in the mitochondria and oxidative stress damages the mitochondria. This leads to a death of the cerebellar neurons that control movement

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17
Q

The buildup of harmful oxygen based free radicals

A

Oxidative stress

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18
Q

Neurons are post mitotic

A

Meaning we are born with a set of neurons and do not make more.

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19
Q

What is a typical treatment for FA?

A

An iron kelater (binds free iron)

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20
Q

The wrinkled gray matter covering the cerebral hemispheres

A

Cerebral cortex

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21
Q

Lobe involved in judgement and planning future action

A

Frontal

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22
Q

Lobe involved with somatic sensations

A

Parietal

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23
Q

Lobe that’s primary function is processing visual information

A

The occipital lobe

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24
Q

Primary function is involved in hearing and memory

A

Temporal lobe

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25
Q

What percent of neurons are in the cortex?

A

80%

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26
Q

What is the cortex plus the white matter?

A

Cerebrum

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27
Q

Where the cell bodies are

A

Gray matter

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28
Q

Where the axons are

A

White matter

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29
Q

Each hemisphere controls sensory and motor processes on the opposite side of the body

A

Contralateral

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30
Q

Are the hemispheres symmetrical in structure and function?

A

No

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31
Q

The left and right hemispheres communicate with each other by a mass of connections called the..

A

Corpus callosum

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32
Q

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area or wernickes area

A

Aphasia

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33
Q

What would damage to Broca’s area do?

A

Impair speech

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34
Q

What would damage to wernickes are do?

A

Impair understanding

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35
Q

Receives written words as visual stimulation

A

Visual cortex

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36
Q

Transforms visual representations into an auditory code

A

Angular gyrus

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37
Q

Interprets auditory code

A

Wernickes area

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38
Q

Controls speech muscles via the motor cortex

A

Broca’s area

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39
Q

Word pronunciation

A

Motor cortex

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40
Q

Disease where the fibers connecting Broca’s and wernickes area are damaged

A

Conduction aphasia

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41
Q

An amplified recording of the electrical waves sweeping across the brains surface

A

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

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42
Q

Visual display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form of glucose while the brain performs a given task

A

Positron emission tomography (PET) scan

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43
Q

Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images that distinguish among different types of brain tissue

A

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

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44
Q

Magnetizes certain molecules in the brain and makes them resonate, allowing us to measure and map brain activity in real time

A

fMRI (functional MRI)

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45
Q

Phagocytes that are mobilized after injury, infection, or disease

A

Microglia

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46
Q

What are the three types of microglia?

A

Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, astrocytes

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47
Q

What microglia are found in the CNS

A

astrocytes and oligodendrocytes

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48
Q

What microglia are found in the peripheral nervous system

A

Schwann cells

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49
Q

What microglia form myelin to insulate nerve cell axons

A

Oligos and Schwann cells

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50
Q

Most numerous type of microglia in the CNS

Characterized by star like shape and the end-feet that form the BBB

A

Astrocytes

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51
Q

What microglia help maintain the right potassium ion concentration by buffering excess k+ in the extracellular space

A

Astrocytes

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52
Q

-formed by tight junctions made by the end feet of astrocytes wrapping around blood vessels

A

Blood brain barrier

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53
Q

What are the three main functions of the BBB

A
  • protects brain from foreign substances in the blood (charged and polar things cannot cross)
  • protects brain from hormones and neurotransmitters in the rest of the body
  • maintains a constant environment for the brain
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54
Q

What are the four defined regions of a neuron?

A
  1. Cell body (soma)
  2. Dendrites (input region)
  3. Axon (output region)
  4. Presynaptic terminal
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55
Q

Part of the neuron that is the metabolic center of the cell

A

Cell body

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56
Q

-shorter in length than axons
-tend to branch out in a tree like fashion
-main apparatus for receiving incoming signals

A

Dendrites

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57
Q

-long and tubular in nature
-always extend away from the soma
-main conducting unit

A

Axon

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58
Q

Near the end of the neuron the axon divides into fine branches that form the…

A

Presynaptic terminal

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59
Q

Small protruding membranous organelles found on the dendritic processes of neurons where the majority of excitatory synaptic signaling occurs in the brain

A

Dendritic spines

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60
Q

Someone who is born with less dendritic spines may have what diseases

A

Rubella, fetal alcohol syndrome, Down syndrome

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61
Q

What nerve cell is responsible for transmitting a signal

A

Presynaptic cell

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62
Q

What nerve cell is responsible for receiving the signal

A

Post synaptic cell

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63
Q

The Presynaptic cell transmits signals from the swollen ends of its axon branches called

A

Presynaptic terminals

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64
Q

Rapid, transient, all or none nerve impulses

A

Action potential

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65
Q

Action potentials typically have an amplitude of ___ and a duration of ___

A

100 mV and 1 msc

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66
Q

What is the range for the distance that and action potential can convey an electrical signal

A

0.1 mm to 3 meters

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67
Q

Action potentials are initiated at a specialized region called the…

A

Axon hillock

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68
Q

The size and the shape ____ as it travels down the axon

A

Remains the same

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69
Q

How is information conveyed by APs interpreted and analyzed by the brain if they all have the same shape and size

A

The frequency of the AP varies

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70
Q

To increase the speed by which action potentials are conducted, axons are wrapped in a fatty insulated sheath called

A

Myelin

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71
Q

The knee jerk response is ___, meaning it does not have to have any influence from the brain

A

Self contained

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72
Q

The knee jerk response is an example of a ____ system where you have a direct connection between sensory and motor neurons

A

Monosynaptic reflex

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73
Q

Explain the steps of the knee jerk response

A
  1. Tapping the knee pulls on the tendon of one of the quadriceps
  2. The muscle stretches and is then sensed by afferent neurons
  3. In the spinal cord sensory neurons act directly on extensor motor neurons that contract the quadriceps and the muscle is stretched
  4. At the same time the sensory neurons act indirectly via an inhibitor interneuron that inhibits the flexor motor neurons
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74
Q

Neurons entering the spinal cord

A

Afferent

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75
Q

Neurons exiting the spinal cord

A

Efferent

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76
Q

What are the four different sites that signals are generated at in a neuron?

A
  1. A local input signal
  2. A trigger signal
  3. A long range signal
  4. An output signal
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77
Q

A neuron that has the cell body in the middle

A

Bipolar neuron

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78
Q

At rest all cells maintain a difference in

A

Electrical potential

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79
Q

What is the resting membrane potential

A

-65 mV

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80
Q

Two factors contributing to the differential in membrane potential:

A
  1. Unequal distribution of charged ions on either side of the membrane
  2. The selective permeability to potassium (k+)
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81
Q

At rest, these channels are open and potassium ions tend to leak out, Leaving behind negative charges making the inside of the membrane

A

more negative than the outside

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82
Q
  • reflex that keeps knees from buckling when you stand up
    -causes muscle contraction in response to increased muscle length
    -initiated by stretched muscle spindles
    -contraction of stretched muscle and inhibition of its antagonist
A

Stretch reflex

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83
Q

The input component produces

A

Graded local signals

84
Q

Ionic current disturbs the testing membrane potential, driving the potential to a new level called the

A

Receptor potential

85
Q

A signal that spreads passively along the axon

A

A local signal

86
Q

The receptor potential spreads passively to the ____ where it triggers an action potential

A

Trigger zone

87
Q

An action potential is only generated if

A

The input signal is greater than a certain threshold

88
Q

After the threshold is met only the ____ in which the APs are generated changes

A

Frequency

89
Q

-Results in severe impairment of cognitive function in children
-children have two abnormal copies of the gene that codes for phenylalanine hydroxylase
-therefore they build up high blood levels of phenylalanine
-autosomal recessive

A

Phenylketonuria

90
Q

What does phenylalanine hydroxylase do?

A

Converts phenylalanine to tyrosine

91
Q

PKU is an example in which ____ can modify the phenotype

A

Environmental factors

92
Q

Leads to the production of a toxic metabolite that interferes with the normal maturation of the brain

A

High blood levels of PHE

93
Q

What treatment is easy and effective for PKU

A

Restrict protein intake

94
Q

Who proposed that individuals with high mental skills were more likely to have children who were very smart and introduced the idea of twin studies

A

Francis Galton (1869)

95
Q

What is the single gene found on chromosome 6 that influences eating behavior?

A

The ob gene

96
Q

What does the ob gene code for?

A

A protein called leptin, that is selectively expressed in adipose tissue and released in the blood stream

97
Q

In a normal mouse what happens when adipose tissue decreases

A

Leptin levels decrease and the animal eats more

98
Q

Mice with homozygous mutations in the ob gene lack

A

Leptin

99
Q

Where is the leptin receptor expressed at high levels?

A

The hypothalamus

100
Q

Type of protease whose role is to chew up proteins like the leptin receptor

A

MMP2

101
Q

What dopamine receptor gene is thought to be associated with being more promiscuous

A

DRD4

102
Q

What does DRD4 code for

A

The dopamine receptor D4

103
Q

What variant of DRD4 is linked to lower dopamine sensitivity

A

DRD4-7R

104
Q

The 7R+ version does not bind dopamine as effectively, therefore people with this version need

A

Higher levels of dopamine to feel pleasure

105
Q

What neuropeptide receptor stimulates pair bonding and parental bonding

A

Vasopressin

106
Q

Monogamous voles show high expression (more activity) of a vasopressin receptor in an area of the brain called

A

Ventral palladium

107
Q

One of the first complex human behavioral abnormalities to be traced to a single gene

A

Huntingtons disease

108
Q

HD is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by four features:

A
  1. Heritability
  2. Chorea
  3. Cognitive impairment
  4. Death
109
Q

When does HD typically onset

A

Fourth to fifth decade of life

110
Q

HD involves death of neurons in the

A

Caudate nucleus, a part of the basal ganglia involved in regulating voluntary movement

111
Q

HD is ___ and the mutation is highly penetrating

A

Autosomal dominant

112
Q

Where is the mutant gene found for HD

A

on chromosome 4

113
Q

What is different about the mutated form of Huntington protein

A

A long stretch of the amino acid glutamine (positively charged)

114
Q

What codon repeat causes the long stretch of glutamine for HD

A

CAG

115
Q

Each successive generation of a family the harbors the mutant gene manifests the disease with greater severity at an earlier age

A

Genetic anticipation

116
Q

What kind of mutation causes a poly glutamine structure

A

Gain-of-function

117
Q

Q is

A

Glutamine

118
Q

An Exon is

A

The coding section

119
Q

Who discovered the HD gene in 1993?

A

Nancy wexler

120
Q

What treatment for HD did they bring to human trials and ended up causing worsening symptoms for elderly people

A

Tominersen (antisense oligonucleotide)

121
Q

Ions are strongly attracted to water because water molecules are

A

Dipolar

122
Q

Water molecules interact with ions via

A

Electrostatic forces

123
Q

Which ions interact more strongly with water

A

Smaller ions

124
Q

Energy gained by transferring an ion from a vacuum into aqueous solution

A

Hydration energy

125
Q

Electrostatic force is proportional to the inverse square of the distance between charges, therefore water molecules can approach closer to the center of smaller ions and the force will be larger

A

Coulomb’s law

126
Q

Which ions can shed water molecules more easily

A

Larger ions

127
Q

A carrier that specifically increases the permeability of membranes to potassium

A

The antibiotic valinomycin

128
Q

Forms a relatively stable pore across the membrane through which small cations but not anions pass

A

Gramicidin

129
Q

Which method (pores or carriers) has a higher maximum speed of ion flow

A

Pores

130
Q

The rate of ion flow through pores depends on

A

The highest energy barrier

131
Q

Pores act similar to enzymes, in that they

A

Reduce the height of the energy barrier

132
Q

What do most ions do to enter a channel

A

Partially dehydrate and form weak bonds with chemical groups inside the pore

133
Q

At high levels of substrates, ion flow through a pore

A

Saturates

134
Q

What is one of the most important features of channels in excitable cells?

A

Ion specificity

135
Q

Smaller ions attract water more strongly, causing them to have

A

A larger water shell

136
Q

Which is bigger sodium or potassium

A

Potassium

137
Q

Which is bigger including the water shell (sodium or potassium)

A

Sodium

138
Q

What makes the sodium channel specific to sodium other than pore size

A

Selectivity filter

139
Q

Narrow region that acts as a molecular sieve. Ion sheds it’s water molecules and forms weak chemical bonds with the polar aa lining the wall of the channel

A

Selectivity filter

140
Q

What is more easily stabilized at the selectivity filter

A

Sodium

141
Q

It is thought that ion channels are selective both because of

A

Specific chemical interactions and molecular sieving based on pore diameter.

142
Q

You would expect the binding site for an ion in the aqueous pore of a cation channel that allows the ion to shed its water molecules to have

A

Negatively charged amino acid residues

143
Q

Ohms law

A

I=V/R

144
Q

The more open ion channels you have, the higher the…

A

Conductance

145
Q

A glass micropipette is brought into close contact with the surface of a cell and gentle suction is applied to isolate individual channels

A

The patch clamp technique

146
Q

What blocks sodium channels

A

Tetrodotoxin

147
Q

The more channels involved in a patch, the more closely the patch current resembles the

A

Whole cell current

148
Q

Ion channels exist in three different conformational states

A
  1. Closed state
  2. Open state
  3. Inactivated state (open but not conducting)
149
Q

The transition of a channel between the conformational states

A

Gating

150
Q

Neurotransmitters regulate the opening and closing of an ion pore by binding to a site on the channel protein

A

Ligand gated channels

151
Q

What is the main ligand channel in the post synaptic membrane at the neuromuscular junction?

A

Nicotine ach receptor

152
Q

The response of the receptor to ach can be separated into two steps:

A
  1. Ligand-receptor complex
  2. Conformational change of protein to an open state
153
Q

What are the five polypeptide subunits of the ach receptor

A

Two alpha, beta, gamma, and delta

154
Q

The binding surface of the ach receptor appears to be primarily on the

A

Alpha subunits (near the outer surface)

155
Q

The ach receptor subunits have recognition sites for

A

Agonists, reversible antagonists and alpha-toxins

156
Q

The membrane spanning regions of the receptor are

A

Alpha helical

157
Q

The N terminal and C terminal of the ach receptor are

A

Extracellular

158
Q

The transmembrane segments are

A

M1,M2,M3, long cytoplasmic loop, M4

159
Q

What is the most highly conserved segment of the subunits

A

The transmembrane region

160
Q

What is the hallmark of excitable cells

A

Voltage gated ion channels

161
Q

Voltage gated ion channels in the closed state are opened by

A

Membrane depolarization

162
Q

Channel responsible for the rapid membrane depolarization made from a single subunit. Voltage dependent and very fast

A

Sodium channels

163
Q

During the inactivation state, the sodium channel is in a

A

Refractory period

164
Q

What channels are important drug targets

A

Sodium channels

165
Q

Binding of drugs to the sodium channel maintains the channel in

A

An inactivated state

166
Q

Since drugs only bind to open sodium channels, their inhibitory effect is

A

Use and voltage dependent

167
Q

What drugs act as sodium channel blockers

A

Anti-arrhythmias, anticonvulsants, and local anesthetic (lidocaine)

168
Q

A single pass integral membrane glycoprotein composed of three separate membrane spanning regions)

A

Tripartite

169
Q

What will always be Extracellular for cell identification

A

Glycoproteins

170
Q

The large sub unit of sodium and calcium channels have how many homologous domains

A

4

171
Q

Wishing each domain for sodium pumps how many membrane spanning regions are there

A

6

172
Q

Which domain has an amphipathic structure and is thought to act as a voltage sensor

A

S4

173
Q

The region between what two domains forms the pore for the sodium channel

A

S5 and S6

174
Q

The region between S5 and S6 is known as

A

The P domain

175
Q

Much of what we know about potassium channels comes from the study of

A

Shaker flys

176
Q

What is characteristic about shaker flies

A

Prolonged AP

177
Q

The shaker gene codes for a protein that is _____ than that of other voltage gated channels

A

Much shorter

178
Q

The shaker protein has ___ hydrophobic segments that are membrane spanning

A

6

179
Q

Four of the membrane spanning sections in the shaker protein form a

A

Tetramer

180
Q

Why does this channel lead to prolonged AP

A

Does not properly inactivate

181
Q

For normal ion channel functioning what is the molecular mechanism by which ion channels inactivate

A

An intracellular loop acts as a blocking particle

182
Q

What enzyme would cleave the ball and chain

A

Pronase

183
Q

Applying positive charge into a system for artificial polarization

A

Step up

184
Q

The ball on the ball and chain inhibitor is likely a

A

Negatively charged protein

185
Q

Channel formed by two homodimers, voltage independent and contributes to the resting potential

A

Leak potassium channels

186
Q

Work that have opposite polarities

A

Negative work

187
Q

Work that has the same polarities

A

Positive work

188
Q

What is a measure of the work required to separate ions

A

Voltage

189
Q

The greater the concentration gradient, the ___ the voltage

A

Larger

190
Q

The resulting movement of charges between areas of potential difference is
- defined as the net movement of positive charge per unit time

A

Current flow

191
Q

Any object through which electrical charges can flow is a

A

Conductor

192
Q

Current (I) equation

A

Current= potential difference x conductance

193
Q

Equation for conductance (g)

A

Conductivity x (area/length)

194
Q

If the length of an axon increases or the diameter decreases the conductance

A

Is reduced

195
Q

The reciprocal of conductance and is a measure of the resistance provided by an object to flow

A

Electrical resistance

196
Q

Insulators have ___ conductivity

A

Low

197
Q

The more open channels you have, the ___ the resistance

A

Lower

198
Q

Consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulating layer (ability to store charges of opposite signs)

A

Capacitor

199
Q

Normally are open and are not influenced by extrinsic factors such as potential across the membrane (important for maintaining the resting membrane potential)

A

Resting channels

200
Q

Closed when the membrane is at rest and can be regulated by three factors:
1. Changes in membrane potential
2. Ligand binding
3. Membrane stretch

A

Gated channels

201
Q

Positive charge on the outside, negative charge on the inside (-60- -70 mV)

A

Resting membrane potential

202
Q

A reduction of charge separation leading to a less negative membrane potential

A

Depolarization

203
Q

An increase in charge separation leading to a more negative membrane potential is

A

Hyper-polarization

204
Q

__ is more concentrated inside the cell and ___ is more concentrated outside the cell at rest

A

K+ and Na+

205
Q

When the electric force driving potassium into the cell is equal and opposite to the chemical force driving potassium out of the cell

A

Ek

206
Q

For most cells at rest, the membrane is most permeable to

A

Potassium

207
Q

When Vm is closer to Ek (-75 mV) it means

A

The membrane is most permeable to potassium at that time

Neurobiology (1 decks)

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