Exam

Question 1

1. Mohammed Reza Pahlavi

Answer 1

Iranian Shah, (1941-1979), successfur of his father in Iran’s pre-revolutionary regime. His regime was largely sultanistic, with ultimate powers over police and treasury. Instituted a police state and wiped out opposition to his power through land reforms (white revolution) weakening traditional pillar of landed elites who might oppose him. Focus on ‘Westernizing’ and modernization.

Question 2

2. Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Khamenei

Answer 2

Current supreme leader of Iran, 12er Shia Muslim, who, along with Khomeini was part of Islamic Revolution in Iran. Succeeded Khomeini in 1989. Shia Islam provide identity across socio-economic distinctions.

Question 3

3. Guardian Council

Answer 3

After the Iranian Revolution, Guardian Council was instituted as part of the new constitution. It is an unelected body dominated by clerks, that has the power to veto any legilation passed by the president or the legislature if they deem it is not Islamic enough under understanding of shia Islam. Aslo has the power to ban any candidates from office who were deemed to be insufficiently devout. → It ensured that the state always stays Islamic

Question 4

4. Mir(s)

Answer 4

After in 1850s Russia started reforms, including abolition of serfdom, peasants left the land-owners and formed their own self-governing communes, village councils (MIRs). This became known as proto-socialism, as these communities governed and distributed land to peasants. These changes enhanced peasant solidarity and autonomy – two things Skocpol says were critical for social revolution. MIRs also influenced Narodniks who idolized the peasantry and believed they could build a kind of socialism based on this village model.

Question 5

5. New Economic Policy (NEP)

Answer 5

After the Russian Revolution, the Bolsheviks seized many privately owned businesses and farms, etc. in the name of the party. This policy made Lenin unpopular, so in 1921 he launched the New Economic Policy allowing citizens to practice quasi-capitalism such as private ownership and selling goods. Economy stabilized, but then Lenin died, and Stalin took over who eliminated NEP.

Question 6

6. Zine Ben Ali

Answer 6

First leader during the Arab spring to be ousted by protest, forced to flee to Saudi Arabia where he died in exile. Second President of Tunisia (repressive rule, problems with human rights violations and freedom of the press). He survived such a long term as president by mixing authoritarian rule with a degree of prosperity and stability for his people. First promised democracy, but then went authoritarian.

Question 7

7. Tahrir Square

Answer 7

the epicentre of anti-govt protests or Egypt in 2011, bringing together up to a million people, some say. Led to demise of Hosni Mubarak, snowballed to other countries. Symbol of ongoing Egyption democracy demonstrations.

Question 8

8. Ali Abdullah Saleh

Answer 8

Yemeni leader who ruled for more than three decades the poorest Arab country, which suffered periodic warfare and became a hotbed for Al Qaeda. He was universally seen as corrupt and unprincipled, interested mainly in wealth and power for himself and his relatives, whom he installed in powerful posts. In June 2011 survives attempted assassination but comes to be later assassinated by a Houthi rebel.

Question 9

9. Solidarity

Answer 9

Ash reading. A trade union that emerged in Poland in 1980s amidst a foreign debt crisis, that gained popularity and was made illegal and forced underground. However, support for it continued through the Catholic church, and eventualluy it became the first group outside the communist party Soviet Govt engaged with, leading to semi-free elections in 1989 and propelling a wave of similar movements across Soviet Union.

Question 10

Indira Gandhi

Answer 10

Indira Gandhi became the first and only female prime minister of India 2 years after her father’s death (Nehru). Unlike her father – who tried to strengthen democratic institutions - she had autocratic tendencies. Her government declared a state of emergency due to ongoing protests, suspending basic democratic liberties. She later called new elections to which she lost badly. She was re-elected in 1980 but this time she governed in a more democratic way, until her assassination by her Sikh bodyguards in 1984 due to political and religious conflict in India.

Question 11

11. Congress Party

Answer 11

Founded in 1885, it was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa. It was small, elite and all educated in England. Amassed followers, had democratic values - wrote laws protecting minorities, languages, freedm of speech etc. After Mahatma Ghandi was assasinated by a Hindu nationalist in 1948, Nehru emerged as a dominant figure. Became first prime minister, helped consolidate democracy by underutilizing his power.

Question 12

Majoritarian democracy

Answer 12

A particular type of democracy where where the masses rule, where majority gets what majority wants. Opposed to a liberal democracy which protects the rights of minorities as well. It can lead to tyranny of the masses and the mob rule.

Question 13

13. Snowballing

Answer 13

What Samuel Huntington called the power of example. Diffusion effects, demonstration effects, domino effect. The point is: when you see all of the neighboring states democratizing, becoming liberal democratic regimes, is much harder to persist as an authoritarian state. a. Example: Arab spring, starting with the protest in Tunis, followed by Egypt, Syria, Yemen, Bahrain and Libya.
b. Example: Poland-Hun-CZ fell in a space of a year. They all transitioned away from communism.

Question 14

14. MITI

Answer 14

Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry. According to Johnson, it was the leading state actor in the economy of Japan, which was created after WW2 to help rebuild Japan. Model for interventionist developmental state (one that intrudes very heavily and very systematycally in the economy and industry), critical for developing Japan economically.

Question 15

15. Developmental state

Answer 15

As per the model by Johnson, he defines a developmental state as a state that is focused on economic development and takes necessary policy measures to accomplish that objective, mainly in East-Asian context. The main characteristics of a developmental state are: (i) autonomous from society; (ii) economically interventionist; (iii) pro-business in its policies.

Question 16

ISI

Answer 16

Import Substitution Industrialization, introduced in 1960s, represents an economic policy that advocates autarky, meaning the replacement of foreign imports with domestically produced products as a way to avoid the ‘dependency trap’ and the negatives associated with it. ISI is closely associated with Latin America, Asia, where many countries pursued such a policy from the 1950s to the 1980s.

Question 17

17. EOI

Answer 17

Export-oriented industrialization represents an economic policy that favors global trade, especially in regards to country’s ‘comparative advantage’ – i.e. low-cost manufacturing. Example: To attract foreign capital, Taiwan set up special trade zones in which foreign companies could establish factories and make use of low-cost labor. However, this does not mean markets are equally open in both directions. EOI policies are often coupled with overt government support for critical export sectors and the existence of a developmental state.

Question 18

Independent variable(s)

Answer 18

Factors that may explain an outcome. What one thinks causes something; hypothesize what could explain the outcome we are interested in. A + B + C (independent) cause D (dependent). Like the NYC Crime rate fall in 1990s is the D variable and the police habits, cultivating better lives for citizens, stop & frisk are I variables.

Question 19

Dependent variable

Answer 19

outcome to be explained like democratization, social revolution, drop in crime with help of independent variables.

Question 20

20. Deterministic explanation

Answer 20

A->B with goal in mind. Modernization Theory and Marxism are deterministic explanations, in that once a state reaches a certain point, it will inevitably move onto the next stage. In Modernization Theory, Once there are modern ideas of science and economics, a state will inevitably adopt Capitalistic economy.

Question 21

21. Probabilistic explanation

Answer 21

Way most social scientists view the world. Likelihood of something happening. For example, what will make a state more or less democratic.With high probability we think something is going to happen, but we never actually know. In presence of this –> measure something by a quantifiable amount.

Question 22

22. Modernization Theory

Answer 22

Theory described in WW Rostow’s Alternative to communist manifesto. Modernization theory at its core is about a transition from an agrarian & rural to a modern, industrialized & urban society. Universalist and deterministic. Prescribes a single (Western-like) path for all countries. The future of Mongolia is England. Rostow: Modernization always happens in 5 stages: Traditional Society, pre takeoff, takeoff, drive to maturity, age of high mass consumption.

Question 23

23. Critical juncture

Answer 23

Acemoglu and Robinson reading on Institutional approaches. A points in time when something momentous happens. Something happens that allows the rules of the game to change or reset - wars, regime changes, famines, etc in ways that can affect a state for a long time. A lot of countries had these when countries achieved independence, and this has far-reaching effects. Initial institutional approaches has far reaching effects like in Congo, Botswana, Argentina, Peru.

Question 24

Inclusive institution

Answer 24

Acemoglu & Robinson. Those political institutions that favour a large amount of stakeholders, centralized and pluralistic.

Question 25

25. Extractive institution

Answer 25

Acemoglu & Robinson. Those political institutions that are decentralized and limit participation, it tends to be localize and limited in the scope of who they encompass, of who is properly a stake holder, who gets to participate in the decision making process. Lead to stagnation and poverty for society as a whole, immiserate the masses. Example: Congo - where they didn’t want to use plows because that would increase production, and that surplus would be taken from them (bad institutions).

Question 26

26. District magnitude

Answer 26

refers to the number of legislative seats that belong to a given, geographically circumscribed electoral district. This can be just one the whole country being a whole DM, or it can differ by which election is taking place, or it can differ for different states. In Majoritarian, pluralistic electoral systems have single member districts (DM=1), while in PR system DM>1.

Question 27

27. Dual legitimacy

Answer 27

Juan Linz calls a system of dual legitimacy, when you have 2 distinct elected powers, neither one has primacy over the other one and except in extreme circumstances, neither one can remove the other one from power. Presidentialism, for example, has a dual legitimacy problem.

Question 28

28. Lame Duck Syndrome

Answer 28

Linz. When a president loses credibility, the government essentially becomes paralyzed. When people dont trust the president anymore, and he doesn’t have any influence over others. But he can’t be removed either as presidents serve a fixed term. For example, In the US, this often occurs at the end of a presidents second term in office, this is called the lame duck effect. the problem is in many new democracies, the so-called Lame duck effect occurs in a president second or third year in office, and when presidential terms may be 5 or 6 or even more years, this can be a major source of instability.

Question 29

Proportional representation

Answer 29

a type of parliamentary electoral system where:

a. a party doesn’t need to win the majority, but instead needs to exceed an electoral threshold common (usually around 5%) As long as your party gets above this number, you will win legislature. In Israel it is very small, just under 2%. They want small parties because they can really affect how coalitions are built. TUR is very high 10%.

b. representatives usually elected indirectly via list system. typically closed or open lists. Not voting for a candidate for a party list.

c. favors multiple parties and coalition-building
. This type of arrangement tends to favor multiple parties competing for office.
d. elections take place in districts with DM>1

Question 30

30. Westminster system

Answer 30

A type of a democratic parliamentary electoral system where elections take place directly in single-member districts under FPTP (plurality) rules. Favours two main parties competing for office. Named after British parliament.

Question 31

31. Presidentialism and semi- presidentialism

Answer 31

The presidential system is a democratic system where:
a. President directly elected by voters (legitimacy/ clear mandate to govern) 

b. Cabinet appointed by president (she can fire and hire them) 

c. Legislature also directly elected, but in a separate vote. President and legislature each have own electoral mandate, two distinct elected powers, Neither one has primacy over other one, except in extreme circumstances neither can remove the other from power. 

d. Executive term in office fixed (usually 4-6 years). Only in exceptional circumstances, like after impeachment, president can be removed from office before his term. 

In a semi-presidential system there is a directly elected president and a prime minister elected by the parliament, so there are effectively two executives in power. The president usually deals with international issues while the PM deals with domestic politics. As long as there is a clear divison of labour ahead of time, semi-presidentialism can work effectively. But it can also lead to murky division of power and cause confusion.

Question 32

32. Duverger’s Law

Answer 32

states that plurality-rule elections within single member districts favor a two party system. The hypothesis is that a double-ballot majority system (meaning you have a run off election if no one candidate gets 51%) and proportional representation tend to favor multipartism. 
Under FPTP, both parties race to capture the middle (where majority of voters lie) because you need a broad swab of society. It promotes big tent parties and convergence.

Question 33

33. Median Voter Theorem

Answer 33

Downs. Assumes that political preferences in a population approximate a normal distribution (bell curve) → suggests that most voters are pretty centrist in their views. Based on this he suggests that in a FPTP system all you need is to get the most votes, and the easiest way to do that is to rush towards the middle to secure your base.

Question 34

34. Formal vs. informal institutions

Answer 34

(Huntington, Acemoglu&Robinson)
a. Formal: rules that are codified somewhere, independent of whether they are weak or strong.
b. Informal: those that are not codified but that nonetheless affect how political processes unfold. Many rules of the game of how we lead our lives are not written down, enforced by authorities, but are nevertheless kept and respected. Corruption and patronage, for example, are informal institutions, but very maladaptive for democracies.
How much is something institutionalized means how well it is engrained into a society.

Question 35

35. Grand coalition

Answer 35

Lijphart. Grand Coalition is a characteristic of consociational democracy (a form of power-sharing, last best hope to keep a highly divided society together). It is a broadly worked out governing scheme between the representatives of all significant segments of the plural society. For example, an agreement to alternate president among different ethnic/religious groups, or a system to divide cabinet posts along ideological/confessional/sectarian lines. It’s a bargain struck ahead of time, often by elite not always elected reps. 
Grand coalitions can only exist where there is willingness to compromise.
(According to Lijphart, the most important method of consociational government - the grand coalition - is complemented by secondary instruments: mutual veto, proportionality and segmental autonomy. All of these entail deviations from pure majority rule.)

Question 36

36. Proportionality

Answer 36

In consociational democracies serves as a method of allocating service appointments and scarce resources amongst different segments as a neutral and impartial standard of allocation. Representation is proportional to your segment in the underlying society.

Question 37

37. Mutual veto

Answer 37

In consociational society means that every societal segment involved in grand coalition no matter its size can block decisions if it sees them as deleterious to its interests. No legislature can be passed unless all groups okay it. The mutual nature of the veto makes the frequent use of the veto unlikely, hence stops the danger of minority tyranny. The mutual veto can be informal like in the Netherlands or Switzerland or it can be formal like it was in Austria

Question 38

38. Segmental autonomy

Answer 38

In a consociational democracy, a lot of leeway for different social groups to administer their own communities - run own schools, have own newspapers. Can get extreme and feel like parallel societies living in the same country. On all matters of common interest, decisions should be made with proportional degrees of influence however on the matters relating to a specific section of society, decisions and their execution can be left to the separate segments.

Question 39

39. Ethnic group

Answer 39

According Horowitz an ethnic group is a group in which members share a subjective belief in a common ancestry. What sets apart ethnic identities from other identities is the idea they are based on ‘ascriptive characterists’ (traits we think of ourselves being born with or being born into) - skin colour, language, etc. Ethnicity is linked to non-chosen things. Boundaries of ethnicity can be very blurry.

Question 40

40. Nation

Answer 40

A nation is the supra-familial group to which your ultimate loyalty belongs. It can be either civic (i.e., people united by shared beliefs like US) or – more commonly – ethnic in composition. In the latter case, a nation may be thought of as an ethnic group (Japan, Mongolia). In much of the world nations are attached to states (Germany, Hungary). But not always the case.

Question 41

41. Nationalism

Answer 41

an ideology that seeks to attach a nation to a state (in this context “state” means a specific geographically delimited territory, often one thought to be historically significant to the group, a place where the group traces its origins from or that otherwise plays a big role in the groups’ backstory). Under ethnic nationalism, the political and the national unit should be congruent.

Question 42

42. Primordialism

Answer 42

A theoretical approach that seeks to understand the emergence and persistence of ethnic identity as a political variable. Two key assumptions for primordialists: (i) ethnic identities are fixed or given, and are deeply rooted in history; (ii) ethnic bonds are powerful (due to people’s natural need to belong to a safe group) and will trump societal or ideational bonds when “push comes to shove”. To primordialists, ethnic identities are always lurking just beneath the surface and, therefore, the resurgence of ethnicity in a place like Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union – both places in which ethnicity was supposed to disappear – actually came as no big surprise, were to be expected.

Question 43

43. Constructivism (instrumental and social)

Answer 43

Constructivists reject the notion that ethnic identity is fixed or ancient. For constructivists all identities are socially constructed, shaped by the social, political and institutional context. Instrumental constructivists view ethnic identification as an individual, strategic choice; ethnicity as means to political/economic ends. On the other hand, social constructivism perceives ethnic identity as socially constructed, meaning rooted in wider communities (and often institutionalized, Posner).

Question 44

44. Battle of Kosovo (1389)

Answer 44

The Serbs were decidedly defeated by the Ottomans at the battle of Kosovo (1389), and the medieval Serbian leader Prince Lazar died in this battle. Losing this battle cost Serbia’s sovereignty for 500 years, which had a huge importance in the Serbs self-concept and mythology. In June 1989 more than 1 million Serbs gathered to see Milosevic mark the 600 anniversary of the Serbian loss, engaging in a massive nationalist campaign pro-Serbia which even used Prince Lazar’s relics.

Question 45

45. Josip Broz Tito

Answer 45

A post-war communist hero that became the leader of the new communist Yugoslav state, a position he kept from 1945 to his death in 1980. Tito’s government sought to squash nationalism through a unique government system, which consisted of regional autonomy, redistributive taxation and collective presidency.

Question 46

46. Slobodan Milosevic

Answer 46

a low level communist politician who used ethnic entrepreneurship to ignite ethnic conflict in Yugoslavia, becoming an important figure in the Serbian nationalist movement . President of Serbia between 1989 until 2000, when he was forced out by the Bulldozer Revolution. Died in prison, at trial at International Criminal Court for crimes against humanity.

Question 47

47. Srebrenica Massacre

Answer 47

Despite the fact that UN forces had declared the Bosnian city of Srebrenica a safe zone, Serbian nationalist militias overran Srebrenica in July 1995 and carried out a savage and brutal ethnic cleansing. Approximately 8,000 Bosnian Muslims, mainly boys and men, were slaughtered in just a few days.

Question 48

48. Dayton Accords

Answer 48

A peace accord between Milosevic (Serbia), Tujman (Croatia) and Izetbegovic (Bosnia) signed in 1995, which sought to end the conflict in Bosnia. The Dayton Accords recognized Bosnia’s independence, but it also created two semi-autonomous republics in Bosnia, a Serbian Republic and the federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. As a result of the Dayton Accords, Bosnia stabilized after 1995.

Question 49

49. Ethnic entrepreneur

Answer 49

According to instrumental constructivists, these are politicians who play ethnic differences, deliberately foster ethnic hatred to gain or maintain power. Ethnic entrepreneurship is particularly likely among two specific types of politicians: (i) political outsiders looking for a way to gain power; (ii) politicians that have power but are on their way to lose it, and view this ethnic appeal as an easy way to rally support around them. An example of a context that may have incentivized ethnic entrepreneurship: Yugoslavia by the late 1980s. It is a leadership/agent centred perspective. Ethnic conflict is being deliberately instigated from above.

Question 50

50. Ethnic security dilemma

Answer 50

In the absence of an effective and neutral state, ethnic groups may feel the need to arm themselves out of fear, perpetuating a cycle of reactive escalation not out of ancient hatred but by modern day uncertainty and fear. The perception of fear can be intensified by the absence of cross-ethnic linkages, and/or the absence of an effective (state that systematically enforces the law) and neutral state (state that is not biased, apply the law impartially).

Question 51

51. Hutu and Tutsi

Answer 51

Ethnic groups involved in Rwanda’s genocide. Historically, key differences among those ethnic identities were economic and reportedly physical. However, with interacial marriage physical differences - if present - were dissipated. In any event, antagonism among Hutu and Tutsis were not so evident until European colonizers institutionalized ethnic identities and promoted a system which primarily favored Tutsis. However, after rebellions in 1959, Belgians tried to tackle those violent rebellions by giving power to Hutu. Later on, in the late 1980s in the context of economic collapse, political opposition being decriminalized, and in the context of rebel insurgency that hardline pro-Hutu ideology emerged. Between 1990 and 1993 – the peak of Hutu supremacist propaganda – sporadic massacres began to occur, which eventually evolved to the massive Rwanda’s genocide in 1994.

Question 52

52. Juvenál Habyarimana

Answer 52

Habyarimana established a single party dictatorship in Rwanda after a coup on Kayibanda’s government in 1973. Habyarimana managed to stop attacks perpetrated against Tutsis after 1959 Hutu’s rebellions. Violence against Tutsis basically stopped after Habyarimana took on power, and in the 1970s and 1980s Rwanda was relatively peaceful. However, discrimination continued as Tutsis were systematically kept out of the army and heavily discriminated against. Thus, it wasn’t until the late 1980s when Rwanda export based, and largely agricultural economy fell into crisis that ethnic conflict percolated to the surface.

Question 53

53. Hutu Power

Answer 53

Hutu Power was a supremacist movement in Rwanda. The emergence of hardline pro-Hutu ideology was linked to the first lady at the time (1990s, Habyarimana’s wife). This xenophobic pro-Hutu faction became known as the Madame’s Clan. Madame’s Clan placed Hutu Power ideologists in top positions throughout the state. Soon the Hutu power movement began to form armed para-state militias. All these events contributed to the eventuality of genocide.

Question 54

54. Paul Kagame

Answer 54

Tutsi leader who finally won power after tide turned against Hutus in the war in July 1994. He became de facto leader of the country. It became effectively authoritarian regime, banning all ethnic politics. Formally became president in 2000, and is still in charge today.

Question 55

55. Civil society (exclusive and inclusive)

Answer 55

Ekiert&Kubik 1999 and Edwards 2005. Civil society is ‘people power’, it’s believed to be a way fro people to stand up against tyranny, a way for citizens build trust between one another in a society.
a. Specific social space or sphere between the household and the state;
b. A set or system of self-organized intermediary groups (associational life) 

c. Normative idea, e.g. collective vision to mobilize people against an oppressive regime or a representation of the ‘good community’. 

• Exclusive: “bonding social capital” (Putnam). Builds ties within the group, but not across groups.
• Inclusive: “bridging social capital” (Putnam). Cuts cross cleavages. Builds toleration, trust. In a neo-tocquellian perception.

Question 56

56. Social capital (bonding and bridging)

Answer 56

Putnam believes that just like political or economic capital, you can build up reserves of trust, feelings of mutual reciprocity in a community through engagement in various CS associations. This is what social capital is - the more money (trust) you have in the bank, the better returns you will have on that investment. Civic engagements breed social capital and social capital—> good govt.

Question 57

57. “Amoral familism”

Answer 57

people don’t cooperate with one another, it’s all about me and my attitude, beyond that I don’t really care, and they assume everyone shares this attitude so why should they do something. Each person for themselves, no one wants to help anyone else. Example: South Italy; No one paying taxes lead to the inability of providing social services.

Question 58

58. Civic culture.

Answer 58

Almond and Verba say that the ongoing explosion of participation in associational and political life, will not necessarily take on a democratic face. Civic culture is what’s going to determine where the country is going. Civic culture mean regime type and how much that matches up with underlying societal norms and expectations. -> almost the same as political culture.

Question 59

59. Social democratic, Christian democratic, and Liberal welfare states.

Answer 59

A welfare state is one wherein the government views itself as tasked with protecting the health and economic well-being of its citizens, especially those in socio-economic need.

a. Social democratic (Swe, Den, Nor) – generous, universalist, direct state provisions for benefits, gender egalitarian.
b. Christian democratic (Ger, Austria, Ita) – universalist, less generous, less gender egalitarian, mixed system of provisions (private & state)
c. Liberal democratic (neo-economically) (USA, New Zealand) – means-tested, not universal, less generous, market provisions for services.

Question 60

60. Universal vs. means-tested welfare policies.

Answer 60

Universal policies: everyone is eligible to benefit from them.
b. Means-tested welfare policies: Policies that have a prerequisite to be eligible for. e.g belonging to a certain socio-economic group.