Exam Flashcards
Cephalization
Mouth, sense organ became concentrated in the front end of the animal formin a head region
nerve nets
the simplest form of a nervous system developed
Hydra and sea star
Bilateralia
Can move using mm, front end will encounter the stimuli first as it moved foreward which has been part of creating the sense organs of the body. There are some which have a brain, and or others has one or more ganglia.
(planarian, leechm insectm chiton, squid, salamander)
Artropods(insects) basic CND
a brain formed by fusion of the ganglia for the head segments ahead of and behind the mouth, so that the esophagus is encircled by this
conglomeration of ganglia.
Typically used in experimentation
Cephalopods: The giant nerve fibers of the cephalopod mantle have been widely used for many years as experimental material in neurophysiology; their large diameter (due to lack of myelination)
makes them relatively easy to study compared with other animals.
Neural crest cells
are a temporary group of cells unique to chordates of the group Cristozoa that arise from the embryonic ectoderm cell layer
Encephalization
Changes in the structure, increase in size.
Describes the evolution of cranial capacity of the human(?) brain
Glial cells role
non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition ( maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and participate in signal transmission in the nervous system. )
third week of human embryonic development
the neuroectoderm appears and forms the neural plate along the dorsal side of the embryo. The neural plate is the source of the majority of neurons and glial cells of the CNS.”
Neurulation
refers to the folding process in vertebrate embryos, which includes the transformation of the neural plate into the neural tube.
Describe the different brain vesicles FIRST developed in the embryo during development
- forebrain (prosencephalon),
- midbrain (mesencephalon)
- hindbrain (rhombencephalon)
Describe the different brain vesicles FURTHER develope into of the embryo during development
- telencephalon (future cerebral cortex and basal ganglia)
- diencephalon (future thalamus and hypothalamus)
- mesencephalon (future colliculi),
- metencephalon (future pons and cerebellum)
- myelencephalon (future medulla).
conduction with decrement
The farther the recording electrode from the site of stimulation, the smaller is the potential change which can reach that electrode: the conduction is said to happen with decrease or it is called conduction with decrement
propagated action potential
If the membrane potential of an excitable cell is artificially changed toward 0 mV (depolarization), reaching a given threshold (threshold potential, -30 - -40mV) a self generating
tetrodotoxin
a toxin from marine fish venom - specifically blocks the voltage dependent sodium channel. This channel operater really fast, opens by activation, inactivates at about +25 mV. It has three states: closed, open and inactivated.
tetraethyl ammonium
The specific blocker of the voltage dependent potassium channel. This channel oerates relatively slowly. It is either closed or opened, it has no inactivated state. (2 states)
Propagation of AP in myelinated fibers: fast conduction made poss by
by the fact that only the nodes of Ranvier contain the TTX-sensitive sodium channels but not the internodiums. Even though the ap will decau brw the nodes on the myelin sheath - at each node the AP will regenerate causing strong ap again
Gap junction where
Electric synapses are involved in fast reflex arches in the central nervous system. The best known non-neuronal electric synapse is the gap junction system between cardiac cells. Similar connections have been found between liver and smooth muscle cells.
Chemical synapses found where
in muscles or glands
Cotransmission
the release of several types of neurotransmitters from a single nerve terminal. This allows for more complex effects at postsynaptic receptors, and thus allows
for more complex communication to occur between neurons.
Ionotropic and metabotropic effect
the neurotransmitter receptor can be classified into two broad categories: metabotropic and ionotropic receptors. Ionotropic receptors form an ion channel pore. When an ionotropic receptor is activated, it opens a channel that allows ions such as Na+, K+, or Cl− to flow. When a metabotropic receptor is activated, a series of intracellular events are triggered that can also result in ion channels opening or other intracellular events, but involve a range of second messenger chemicals.
The spinal cord functions primarily in
the transmission of nerve signals from the motor cortex to the body, and from the afferent fibers of the sensory neurons to the sensory cortex.
central pattern generators
The spinal cord is also the location of groups of spinal interneurons that make up the neural circuits, responsible for controlling motor instructions for rhythmic movements such as walking.
suprachiasmatic nucleus
🔺A key component of the arousal system.
🔺 part of the hypothalamus
🔺contain biological clock
The limbic system
emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction
Which areas of the brain are involved in learning and memory
expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons in a variety of brain areas:
• cerebralcortex,
• hippocampus,
• basalganglia,
• cerebellum.
This phenomenon is called synaptic plasticity.
The hippocampus
part of the limbic system, and plays important roles in the consolidation of information from short- term memory to long-term memory, and in spatial memory that enables navigation.
The main components of the basal ganglia are
- striatum,
- globus pallidus,
- ventral pallidum,
- substantia nigra,
- subthalamic nucleus.
Voluntary movement is initiated in
the Motor Cortex
Thalamus
relay station, or hub, relaying information between different
subcortical areas and the cerebral cortex
lobotomy
a form of psychosurgery, a neurosurgical treatment of a mental disorder that involves severing connections in the brain’s prefrontal cortex. improvements were achieved at the cost of creating other impairments
glial scar
Change in glial cells bc damade in CNS. In its most extreme form, the proliferation associated with gliosis leads to the formation of a glial scar.
Neuroprosthetics
Neural prostheses are a series of devices that can substitute a motor, sensory or cognitive modality that might have been damaged as a result of an injury or a disease. Eg. Brain implant, robotic leg…
Cochlear implant
electric signals which directly stimulate the auditory nerve.
large-scale electric signals
electroencephalography (electrophysiological recordings)
Intracellular recording
involves measuring voltage and/or current across the membrane of a cell.
Extracellular recording
the electrode will usually detect the activity of at most one neuron. This method is called single-unit recording.
Multi-unit recording
If the electrode tip is slightly larger, then the electrode might record the activity generated by several neurons.
Electroencephalography, EEG is
record electrical activity over a time period of the brain. It is typically noninvasive. The different brainwaves are seen.
(Cap with electrodes stuck to it)
Neuroimaging
directly or indirectly image the structure, function, or pharmacology of the nervous system
Positron emission tomography (PET) use
technique that is used to observe metabolic processes in the body
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) use
MRI technology that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow.
efMRI use
Event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (efMRI) is a technique that can be used to detect changes in the hemodynamic response to neural activity in response to certain events.
Eg. Showing face vs house
Cre-Lox recombination
Genetically modified animals; transgenic
Allows gene modification! Recombo causing :(Excision=Deletion, inversion, translocation)
Normal function of tau protein:
stabilizes microtubules
Eg. Accumulated during alzheimers disease
Schwann cells
the principal glia of the peripheral nervous system
Oligodendrocytes
• the myelin-forming cells of the central nervous system
meninges are the three membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord. In mammals, the meninges are the
dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater. The primary function of the meninges is to protect the central nervous system.
ependymal cells.
Modifyed constituents of the choroid plexus
Arachnoid granulation
They protrude into the dural venous sinuses of the brain, and allow cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to exit the subarachnoid space and enter the blood stream.
medulla oblongata develops from and function
🔺The myelencephalon/ afterbrain (region of embryonic hindbrain)
🔺 home to all ascending and descending tracts, nuclei and centers that sort, relay, and modulate a variety of activities necessary for the maintenance of homeostasis
Nucl gracilis and cuneatu. Olivary nucl
Through the nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus it transmit afferent sensory information to the thalamus, and from the olivary nucleus it relays information from the cerebral cortex, diencephalon, and brainstem to the cerebellum.
Through the cardiovascular center and vasomotor center the medulla provides
modulation and fine tuning of heart rate, the strength of myocardial contractility, and the dilatation and constriction of the peripheral vasculature.
Through the respiratory rhythmicity center the MO fine tunes and modulates afferent information received from the
pons and provides baseline set points for the respiratory rate.
(Dorsal gr: inspiration, ventral gr: expiration.)
chemoreceptors
in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and
10th cranial nerves, are sensitive to the pH of their environment.
reticular formation
In MO, helps regulate vital autonomic functions via its interaction with
the respiratory rhythmicity and cardiovascular centers.
bulbar reflexes
pharyngeal reflex, the swallowing reflex (also known as the palatal reflex), and the masseter reflex
Cerebellum
Motor control
Tectum
Midbrain, auditory and visual reflexes. In humans, the tectal area known as the corpora quadrigemina consists of the inferior(auditory processing) and the superior colliculi(eye movements)
tegmentum
red nucleus is in charge of motor coordination (specifically for limb movements). The substantia nigra serves an important role in rewarding behaviors such as approaching desired objects.
