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1
Q

Rene Descartes

A

(Substance) Dualism
Mind and body are different kinds of substances
The body is divisible
The mind is not divisible
The mind is completely different from the body

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2
Q

Gilbert Ryle

A

The mind is a dogma of the ghost in the machine

A category mistake

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3
Q

Dualism

A

Rene Descartes
Gilbert Ryle

The belief that the mind and the body are different kinds of substances - mental substance + physical substance - they exist independently

The mind + the body are separate entities

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4
Q

Materialism

A

Monism

Everything is material/physical
Reality is a physical matter
Our mind is a figment of out imagination

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5
Q

Mentalism

A

Monism

The physical world cannot exist without the awareness of the mind
Only the mind really exists - the physical world could not exist unless some mind were aware of it

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6
Q

Identity position

A

Monism

Every mental position is a brain activity - thoughts are the same as brain activities
The mind is what the brain does - the mind is a brain activity - mental activity is what is happening to the brain

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7
Q

Monism

A

The universe consists of only one substance

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8
Q

3 forms of monism

A

Materialism
Mentalism
Identity position

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9
Q

Consciousness

A

The person’s subjective experience of the world and mind

Experiences that can be overtly reported

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10
Q

Libet

A

RP = readiness potential - electrical activity before a movement

Perform simple movements
Report when they made the decision to move
Recorded RP

Brain activity started 350ms before conscious decision to move

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11
Q

Dehaene

A

Masked vs Unmasked pairing

Target stimulus primed by a preceding stimulus

Blank screen pre+proceeding = can recognise word

Patterned screen pre+proceeding = cannot recognise word

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12
Q

Rett syndrome

A

Young girls <2

Loss of speech, motor control + functional hand use
Seizures, orthopaedic + sever digestion problems

Mutations in MeCP2 protein present in neurones + astrocytes

Re-expression in mice dramatically reverse symptoms

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13
Q

Astrocytes

A

Surrounding neurones + holding in place
Supply nutrients + oxygen
Modulate neurotransmission (mop up NTs)

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14
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

Myelin sheath

Electrical conductance

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15
Q

Radial glial

A

During development - provide scaffolding for neurones to migrate to their final destinations

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16
Q

Microglia

A

Remove dead neuronal tissue

Act as immune defence

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17
Q

Multiple Sclerosis

A

Fatigue, visual problems, difficulty walking

Diagnosis: 20-40

More common in women

Demyelination of neurones

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18
Q

Phenology

A

Correlation of brain anatomy with behaviour/personality

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19
Q

Broca’s area

A

Speech

Broc is chatting

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20
Q

Corpus colostomy

A

Lesions of corpus callosum

Interrupt communication between hemispheres

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21
Q

Phineas Gage

A

Frontal lobe damage

Personality change

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22
Q

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A

Stimulate neurones via externally applied time-varying electromagnetic fields generated by a coil over the head

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23
Q

Somatosensory

A

Sensation that occur anywhere in the body - touch, pressure, temperature

Not localised to a sense organ such as sight, taste, smell etc.

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24
Q

Blindness

A

Visual cortex recruited in somatosensory processing

VC activated by somatosensory input in blind patients
Blind subjects - stimulation impaired tactile reading

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25
Q

Grandmother cell

A

Complex but specific

Responds to only one stimulus ie. vision, hearing etc.

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26
Q

Event-related potential (ERP)

A

Measured brain response as a result of a specific sensory, cognitive or motor event

Measured via EEG

EEG activity is time-locked to a specific external event

Excellent temporal resolution

Poor spatial resolution - sum of signals

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27
Q

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

Recording of magnetic fields produced by electrical currents in the brain

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28
Q

Nissl stains

A

Cell bodies (RER)

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29
Q

CT Scan

A

Inject dye into the blood
X-rays from different angles
Absorption depends on density
Metal > bone > tissue > fat > water > air

Function only

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30
Q

MRI Scan

A

Strong magnetic field applied
Energy released by molecules in tissue is measured

Function only

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31
Q

fMRI

A

Brain activity + structure

Oxy-haem vs deoxy-haem blood

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32
Q

PET Scan

A

Measures local blood flow to a region
Radioactive tracer (FDG - glucose) injected - emits positrons
Slower temporal resolution

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33
Q

Syndactyly

A

Fingers/toes connected by skin tissue
Before surgery: overlap in brain region as they are not separate
After surgery: more separate brain regions that are responsible for each digit

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34
Q

Phantom pain

A

Amputated patients - can feel pain in absent limb
80/90%
Neurones from other body areas invade the area that normally receives input from the missing limb

Therapies that relieve:
Functional prosthesis - artificial limb

Mirror box effect - mirror placed between legs of someone who has lost a limb.
Pain/irritation alleviated from the phantom limb via the other limb due to the brain perceiving this to be the other ‘leg’

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35
Q

Outer ear

PINNA

A

Pinna

Captures the sound and amplifies it by funnelling it into the smaller auditory canal

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36
Q

Middle ear

A

Eardrum collects the vibrations

Detect sound when the eardrum vibrates as little as the diameter of the hydrogen atom

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37
Q

Ossicles

A

Eardrum transmits vibrations to 3 ossicles:
Hammer, anvil, stirrup
Lever action of ossicles transfers the vibration to the cochlea

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38
Q

Cochlea

A

Divided into 3 fluid-filled canals
Vestibular, tympanic, cochlear canal
Stirrup ossicle transmits vibrations to cochlea + the organ of Corti

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39
Q

Organ of Corti

A

Sound-analysing structure
4 rows of hair cells embedded in the basilar membrane
Vibration bends the hair cells, opening K+/Ca2+ channels
Depolarises cells - sets off signals in neurones
Hair cells synaptically excite the cells of the auditory nerve (8th cranial nerve)

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40
Q

Auditory nerve

A

Cranial nerve 8

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41
Q

Auditory pathway

A 
Brain stem = ipsilateral cochlear nuclei 
Brain stem = superior olivary nucleus
Midbrain = inferior colliculus 
Thalamus
Auditory cortex
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42
Q

Frequency

A

Pitch

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43
Q

Sound intensity/energy

A

Loudness

Neurone firing rate - fire more Hz when sound intensity increases

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44
Q

Tonotopic organisation

A

The organisation by which sound is encoded anatomically on the basilar membrane (Organ of Corti, cochlear)

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45
Q

<200Hz

A

Temporal Code

Intensity encoded via the number of individual firing neurones

46
Q

200-2000Hz

A

Place Code
Tonotopic organisation
Basilar membrane

47
Q

Relative pitch

A

Distance of a musical note from a given reference point

48
Q

Absolute (Perfect) Pitch

A

Ability to name/produce a musical note without an external reference

49
Q

Congenital Amusia

A

Tone deafness ~4% population

Present from birth/develop from brain damage

Inability to recognise familiar melodies, read musical notation, detect wrong/out of tune notes

Cannot sing, write musical notation or play an instrument

50
Q

Conductive hearing loss

A

Damage to outer/middle ear

Problem conducting sound waves

51
Q

Sensineural hearing loss

A

Damage to cochlea/hair cells in the inner ear
Disease or exposure to loud noises
Corrected by cochlear implants

52
Q

Tinnitus

Cause

A

The perception of sound within the human ear in the absence of corresponding external sound

Inner ear damage by:
aging, medication, noise-induced hearing loss

Persisting sound due to enlarged sector in the auditory cortex - neurones are responding in a coordinated way in the absence of sound

53
Q

2 types of tinnitus

A
  1. Ringing dependent on abnormal patterns of activity that the damaged inner ear is feeding to the brain
  2. Plastic brain changes to the extent that it can sustain itself without ear inputs to generate the continuous noises
54
Q

Light waves:
Length
Amplitude
Purity

A

Hue/colour
Brightness (intensity)
Saturation/richness of colour

55
Q

The human eye cells

Rods/cones

A

Rods/cones converge onto bipolar cells
3 cones

Bipolar cells –> retinal ganglion cells (RGC, optic nerve) –> photoreceptor cells

56
Q

Fovea

Periphery

A

Central portion of retina
High acuity
Single receptor, single bipolar cell, single ganglion cell

Periphery - more convergence of receptors onto common bipolar/ganglion cells - smaller acuity

57
Q

Better sensitivity to dim light

A

Periphery

58
Q

Receptive field (vision)

A

Region of sensory surface that causes a chance in the firing rate of a cell when stimulated

Optic nerve = single ganglion cell
Ganglia cell integrates info from adjacent rods/cones
Each ganglion cell responds to a specific pattern of light falling within a certain patch

59
Q

Ganglion cells

A

At least a dozen types
Tell the brain different information ie. contrast, direction, speed etc.
Output form the basic of visual perception

Uniform distribution of these cell types on the retina - retinal tiling

60
Q

Rods/cones

A

Cones = abundant in the fovea
Responds to bright light
Colour vision

Rods = abundant in the periphery
Responds to dim light

61
Q

Cones types

A

Blue/green/red
Short/medium/long wavelengths

Colour perceived based on relative response of all 3

White = all 3 are equally active

Blue cones are rarer but most evenly distributed

62
Q

Colour constancy

A

The ability to recognise colours despite changes in lighting - human brain factors out changes in lighting

Early visual neurones respond to the actual wavelength
Neurones later one in the processing stream respond to perceived colour

63
Q

The dress debate

A

Blue/black = correct for warm lighting

White/gold = correct for cool lighting

64
Q

Eye to the brain

A

Minority:
Ganglion –> Superior colliculus

Majority:
Ganglion –> lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN, thalamus) –> primary visual cortex

65
Q

Simple receptive cells

A

Visual cortex
Bars
Angles of lines
Hubel + Weisel

66
Q

Complex receptive fields

A

Visual cortex
Moving light patterns
Medium sized receptive field
Hubel + Weisel

67
Q

Hypercomplex cells

A

Large receptive field
Bar shaped
Strong inhibition on one end
Hubel + Wiesel

68
Q

V1 Function + Organisation

A

Primary visual cortex
Simple, complex + hypercomplex cells
Edges!!!

Cells of similar properties grouped together in COLUMNS - striated cortex
Columns follow topographic organisation
Adjacent columns process adjacent portion of the visual field

69
Q

After primary visual cortex (V1)

A

V1 has connections to secondary visual cortex (V2)

V2 has connections to tertiary visual cortex (V3)

V2+v3 = contain complex + hypercomplex cells
Also contains cells that respond to even more complex patterns such as:
circles, lines that meet at right angles etc.

V2/3 - information passed onto several regions across the occipital lobe

Visual properties such as colour, shape, motion, location etc. processed different brain regions

70
Q

V4

A

Colour processing

Cells in V4 respond to different colours

71
Q

Cerebral achromatopsia

A

Damage to V4 - colour processing
Intact colour naming from memory - impaired colour naming for objects in visual field
Describe surroundings as being darkly coloured
Have intact shape + motion processing
Intact achromatic distinction (grey levels)

72
Q

V5

A

Motion processing

73
Q

Cerebral akinetopsia

A

Loss of movement vision
Unable to perceive the movement in a cup, so cannot pour drink
Difficulties following dialogue

74
Q

Vision - WHAT

A

Temporal cortex
Ventral stream
SHAPE
Identifying/recognising objects

Damage = agnosia

75
Q

Vision - HOW/WHERE

A

Parietal cortex
Dorsal stream
LOCATION/MOTION
Guides movements ie. Picking up cup

Damage does not impair identification - impairs understanding of where things are - issues grabbing items

Damage to superior parietal cortex = optic ataxia - inability to pick objects up correctly

76
Q

Visual agnosia

A

Damage to ventral stream

77
Q

Optic ataxia

A

Superior parietal lobe damage
Inability to guide reaching movements
Ie. Pick up glass

78
Q

Balint’s syndrome

A

Inability to see more than one object at once

79
Q

Binding problem

A

Visual system binds different visual properties/features
ie. colour, shape, motion, location in different brain regions

Accurate perception - putting right features together

Visual features initially processed separately - gets forwarded onto a master map

80
Q

Common visual person cues

A

Facial expression/morphology
Hair style
Body shape + posture
Actions

81
Q

Common social judgements

A 
Social category - age, race, gender
Emotional state
Attractiveness/health
Social attention
Personality
82
Q

How to identify the core face perception network

A

Quadflieg

83
Q

Face perception

A

Faces = highly homogenous
Subtle differences

Assess HOLISTICALLY - combine various facial features of each face into a unique whole

Habitually fuse upper/lower part of face
Harder to report identity of top face when mixed w/ different lower face

Holistic face processing breaks down when INVERTED = harder to recognise

84
Q

Fusiform face area

A

Holistic processing of faces

Inversion effect

85
Q

Occipital face area

A

Feature-Based processing

Inversion effect

86
Q

Posterior superior temporal sulcus

A

Processing dynamic info

ie. Movement

87
Q

Prosopagnosia

A

Face blindness
Have to use alternative cues to identify people
ie. Clothing

88
Q

Person perception network

A

Perceive invisible person qualities to predict their actions
Requires a cognitive leap - may not necessarily be accurate
If network’s normal processing is inaccurate, person inference problems can arise

Understanding of other peoples intentions/inferring mental states etc.

ie. Impaired false belief reasoning - people will not understand the intentions of others

89
Q

The Classic View

Interaction between the person perception network _ the extended network

A

Sequential processing of information

Core networks create representation based on visual input

Representation then used by extended network to exploit the socially relevant info

90
Q

The Alternative View

Interaction between the person perception network _ the extended network

A

Simultaneous exchange between both networks

Core network creates representation based on visual input + person’s experience/expectations/goals

Extended network generates predictions that support/guide processing in core network

91
Q

Emotion

James-Lange

A

A stimulus causes a specific physiological state which produces the action

Predicted those with weak autonomic abilities will experience less fear

Paralysed people do report feeling fearful BUT paralysis does not affect the autonomic nervous system

Botox causes paralysis = Ps take longer to read unhappy sentences + a reduction in emotional responses

Damage to somatosensory cortex - normal autonomic physiological responses to emotional music, but little subjective experiences

Pure autonomic failure - no output from ANS (no regulate of HR etc.) - can still identify emotions in others, but their own emotions less sensitively

92
Q

Enhancing responses to emotion: comic strip

A

Held a pen in mouth to activate smile muscles - found the comic strip funnier

93
Q

Mobius syndrome

A

Entire face paralysed due to cranial nerve damage
Struggle to show emotion
No problem processing/experiencing emotions

94
Q

Do you need to be able to produce emotion to recognise it in others?

A

Mobius syndrome
No impairment in recognising basic types of facial expressions
Mild impairment in facial recognition

95
Q

Emotion

Cannon-Bard theory

A

The stimulus leads directly to the experience of fear

Emotional stimulus triggers both autonomic response + emotional experience in the brain

ANS responds too slowly to account for rapid onset of emotional experience

People have problems recognising ANS symptoms (ie. HR) so how can it lead to a change in the experience of an emotion?

Non-emotional stimuli have the same ANS activity that emotion evokes (ie. temp. rise), why don’t we feel afraid when we have fever?

Not enough patterns of ANS activity to represent the array if unique emotional experiences we have

96
Q

Emotion

Schater + Singer

A

General physiological state experienced, and then the interpretation of the stimulus occurs before the experience of fear

97
Q

James-Lange

Canon-Bard

Schater + Singer

A

Specific physiological reaction then experience

Stimulus leads to experience

General physiological reaction is interpreted to get the experience

98
Q

Areas associated with emotion

A

Limbic area
Amygdala
No specific areas for specific emotions

Insular cortex/basal ganglia = disgust
Insular related to gustation - responds to pleasant/unpleasant tastes
Damage to both areas = impairment in producing disgust and in recognising in others

99
Q

Insular cortex + basal ganglia

A

Disgust
Insular - gustation
Damage to areas - cannot produce disgust, or recognise in others

100
Q

Testosterone

A

Associated with aggression + social dominance
High levels associate w/ violent crimes
Increased testosterone = delays the ability to detect the face of threat in others

Ps given testosterone
Identified aggression at a later stage

101
Q

Serotonin

A

Low levels - higher aggression

Higher levels in monkeys - more likely to attack the bigger monkeys

Predicts convictions of crime

Strongly linked to depression

TRYPTOPHAN - synthesised from amino acids - higher levels impairs the ability to make serotonin

High amino acid diet - correlated w/ aggression/suicidal tendencies

High amino acid diets correlated w/ depression, impulsivity + aggression

Serotonin is not specific to aggression - may just be involved in behavioural regulation

102
Q

Fear + anxiety

A

Amygdala
Input from pain, vision + hearing centres

Projects to:
Hypothalamus - controls ANS responses
Prefrontal - modulates behaviour
Pons - startle response

Pons - links signals to startle response (emotion)

Amygdala = fearful (+happy) faces
Activation pattern may be due to detecting ambiguity in face (not necassarily processing of -ve info)

Activated:
Angry face>scared face because angry=more ambiguous

103
Q

Toxoplasma Gondii

A

Cat is infected + poos
Rodents eat poo
Destroys amygdala

104
Q

Urbache-Wiethe disease

A 
Amygdala shuts down
Doesn't feel fear
Excited when watching horrors
Feels every emotion except fear
Cannot draw or recognise a face of fear
105
Q

Consolidation of emotional events

A

Stressful or emotionally charged experiences are accompanied by secretion of adrenaline/cortisol

Activates amygdala/hippocampus

Enhances consolidation and storage of recent experiences

106
Q

Working memory

A

Decline in memory in older linked to reduced prefrontal activity
Older people w/ intact memory show greater PFC activation than young people = working harder to maintain performance levels/compensate
May need to recruit bilateral processing in order to perform as well

107
Q

Hippocampus
Amnesia
Patient HM

A

Patient HM - bilateral removal of hippocampus.temporal lobe for epilepsy

Anterograde+retrograde amnesia
Intact working memory + semantic memory

Poor episodic emory

Explicit + declarative memory is impaired

Implicit memory intact - includes procedural memory

108
Q

Spatial memory

A

Hippocampus
Respond at different locations in space or when the animal is facing different directions
Different electrodes fire when rats run around in a maze - different neurones active @ different locations

109
Q

Prefrontal cortex

A

Working memory

Reward leanring

110
Q

Basal ganglia

A

Implicit learning
Semantic
Procedural
LTM

111
Q

Temporal cortex

A

Semantic

Conceptual knowledge

112
Q

Hippocampus

A 
LTM
Declarative
Episodic
Spatial
Explicit

Biological Psychology (1 decks)

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