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Mammalogy > Exam > Flashcards

Exam Flashcards

1
Q

What is ethology?

A

the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour

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2
Q

What is ethology interested in?

A

The behavioural process, not animal groups

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3
Q

What are fixed action patterns?

A

Instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of identifiable stimuli

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4
Q

What is an ethogram?

A

Precise descriptions of different behaviours

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5
Q

What are ethograms used for?

A

Creating time budgets, interpreting behaviour

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6
Q

What are Occam’s Razor and Morgan’s Canon?

A

If there are competing reasons as to why something occurs, we take the explanation that makes the least assumptions

Interpret behaviour using simplest mechanisms

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7
Q

What are the disadvantages to observing animal behaviour?

A

Observer effect
Observer bias
Anthropomorphic error

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8
Q

What are behavioural bouts?

A

Continuous balance of energy usage and movement

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9
Q

What is an accelerometer?

A

It records the movement of animals throughout the day using forces.

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10
Q

What is GPS technology used for?

A

Records animal’s location over time.

It can examine areas used, distances travelled, habitat choices, movement patterns, patch residency times

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11
Q

What is a home range?

A

An area utilized by an animal in its natural activities

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12
Q

What are 4 techniques used to estimate home range?

A

Minimum convex polygon
Kernel density
Local Convex Hull
Brownian Bridge

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13
Q

What is a core area?

A

A heavily used portion of a home range

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14
Q

What 5 qualities influence home range size?

A 
Trophic status 
Mode of locomotion 
Suitable habitat 
Body size 
Density
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15
Q

Why do larger mammals have larger home ranges than predicted based on their metabolic needs?

A

They don’t traverse the whole home range frequently
They share home range with others
They need more area to make up for their metabolic needs

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16
Q

What is a society?

A

A group of conspecifics organized in a cooperative manner (beyond sexual and parental behaviour)

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17
Q

What are the costs to being social?

A

Intensified competition
Increased disease/parasite transmission
Increased conspicuousness to predators
Increased chance of misdirected parental care and killing of young by non-parents

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18
Q

What are the 3 forms of communication

A

Visual
Olfaction
Vocalization

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19
Q

What is a territory?

A

An area defended by overt aggression or advertisement

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20
Q

What are the costs of having a territory?

A

Time and energy spent to maintain it

Decreased survival

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21
Q

What are the benefits to having a territory?

A

Economic dependability

Constant access to resources

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22
Q

What 3 factors affect territory size?

A

Cost-benefit
Distribution or quality of resources
Number of competitors

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23
Q

What is dominance?

A

Control of behaviour of subordinate

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24
Q

What are the advantages of being in a group?

A

Vigilance
Dilution of risk
Kin selection
Hunting success

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25
Q

What is inclusive fitness?

A

Reproductive success includes own offspring plus offspring of relatives

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26
Q

Why should aggression be constrained?

A

Because if the loser were to be killed, fighting would have grave consequences for the species

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27
Q

What is Evolutionary Game Theory?

A

The application of game theory to evolving populations in biology.
Outcomes depend on the value of the resources and the cost due to injury

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28
Q

What is the Evolutionary Stable Strategy?

A

A strategy where, once adopted by most members of a population, no mutant alternative strategy can do better

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29
Q

What is anisogamy?

A

The difference in gamete size.
Males have many small, cheap sperm
Females have few large, expensive eggs

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30
Q

What is parental investment

A

Behaviour that increases offspring’s chances of survival at expense of parent’s ability to rear offspring in the future

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31
Q

What are 3 factors that affect the confidence of parentage?

A

Internal fertilization
Reproductive success of females based on quality of offspring
Reproductive success of males based on number of offspring

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32
Q

What is Bateman gradient?

A

The correlation between mating success and reproductive success

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33
Q

What is reproductive skew?

A

Breeding is monopolized by a subset on individuals

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34
Q

What is an operational sex ratio?

A

Ratio among reproductively active members of the population

*important for management

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35
Q

What mechanisms adjust sex ratio?

A

Timing of insemination - more of one sex is conceived earlier and the other later in the estrous cycle

Level of sex hormones at conception

Intrauterine mortality rates - males have a higher IU mortality rate

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36
Q

What is sexual selection?

A

A process that produces anatomical or behavioural traits that affect an individual’s ability to acquire mates

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37
Q

What are the two types of sexual selection?

A

Intersexual selection

Intrasexual selection

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38
Q

What are the 3 types of intersexual selection?

A

Runaway selection - selection of arbitrary traits has cost to survival

Indicator models - traits sexually selected for represent male fitness

Fluctuation asymmetry - random deviations from bilateral symmetry in paired traits

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39
Q

What are the 2 types of indicator models?

A

Handicap hypothesis - males are able to bear the cost of producing the traits due to good condition

Truth in advertising - trait must be linked to overall fitness

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40
Q

What causes fluctuating asymmetry?

A 
Low food quality and quantity
Habitat disturbance 
Pollution
Disease 
Genetic factors
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41
Q

Besides fighting, what are 2 examples of intrasexual selection?

A

Sperm competition

Post-conception competition

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42
Q

What are the 2 types of sperm competition?

A

First-male advantage - mate guarding, copulatory plugs

Second-male advantage - dilution of first male’s sperm

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43
Q

What are the 2 types of post-conception competition?

A

Bruce effect - in the presence of a new male, female aborts and becomes receptive

Infanticide

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44
Q

How do harem sizes relate to degree of sexual dimorphism?

A

Sexual selection is more intense when the degree of sexual dimorphism is larger

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45
Q

What are the differences between males and females when it comes to parental investment?

A

Eggs require more investment, so maternal costs rise quicker than paternal

Optimum offspring number is lower for females, so choice of male is important

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46
Q

What degree of parental care is found in stable environments vs unstable environments?

A

K-selected-type species, iteroparity, stable home ranges leads to high parental care

r-selected-type species, semelparity leads to either lots of care or little care

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47
Q

What are the 5 mating systems?

A 
Monogamy (9%)
Polygamy
Polyandry 
Polygyny 
Promiscuity
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48
Q

What 3 factors determine mating system?

A

Group size
Resource distribution
Predation pressure

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49
Q

What are the 2 benefits to being monogamous?

A

Shared offspring care with mate

Reduced time needed to find mates each season

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50
Q

What are the two types of monogamy?

A

Faculative - when there’s no other females available

Obligate - when female needs a partner to care for young

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51
Q

What are the 4 types of polygyny?

A

Resource defence polygyny - females choose territory rather than the male. Male owns the territory

Female defence polygyny - females are in social groups for reasons other than reproduction. Males defend the harems.

Male dominance polygyny - males defend small territories for display purposes (leks).

Scramble polygyny - females are widely spaced and males are highly mobile

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52
Q

When does polyandry occur?

A

When food availability is low at breeding

When there’s high predation and low offspring survival

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53
Q

What is a domesticated species?

A

A species that is “bred in captivity for purposes of economic profit to a human community that maintains total control over its breeding, organization of territory and food supply”

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54
Q

Why do we domesticate animals?

A

Companionship - hunting, predator defense, transportation, war
Predictable and mobile food sources

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55
Q

What are the 5 stages of domestication?

A

Loose contacts between humans and wild species, no control over reproduction

Individual free-ranging animals confined in and around human settlements, breeding occurring in captivity

Breeding of confined individuals becomes selective with occasional cross-breeding with wild individuals to obtain desired traits

Economic considerations leads to selectivity of various desirable properties, resulting in specific breeds

Wild ancestors of domesticated species are persecuted or exterminated to reduce competition for shared resources. Most ancestral species are now extinct.

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56
Q

What are the 5 characteristics of domesticatees?

A 
Adaptable 
Highly social
Dual resource of products and food
Easily bred in captivity 
Closely herded and not prone to leaving
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57
Q

How long ago were dogs domesticated?

A

15,000-32,000 years ago

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58
Q

What was the first domesticated livestock, and how long ago were they domesticated?

A

Sheep and goat

10,000- 15,000 years ago.

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59
Q

What livestock is the most numerous and most economically important and how long ago was it domesticated?

A

Cattle,

10,000 years ago

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60
Q

What are the 5 morphological and behavioural traits of domestication?

A

Reduction in size

Skulls are shorter and dentition is reduced

Reduction in cranial capacity

Greater variation in genetic-based coat colours and patterns

Earlier puberty and larger litter sizes

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61
Q

What are the two steps to exploiting humans?

A

Self-domestication - less aggressive individuals exploit resources from humans

Human-mediated domestication - occurs when humans associate with less aggressive animals

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62
Q

What is a hypothesis, prediction and experiment?

A

Proposed explanation of an observed phenomenon.

Statement that is expected to be true if the hypothesis is supported and can be tested.

An attempt to show how the hypothesis is false by testing predictions.

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63
Q

What are the 3 types of experiments?

A

Natural observations (mensurative) - high generality, high realism, little control

Field experiment - manipulate one or more variables, natural observations as a control

Lab experiments - high control, accurate measurement, easy to manipulate variables

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64
Q

What percent of living creatures are mammals?

A

4%

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65
Q

Are smaller mammals more at risk or are larger mammals more at risk?

A

Larger mammals

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66
Q

Why are mammals important to us?

A

Economically significant
Predictors of disease
Predictors of global change
Basis of biological understanding and evolutionary understanding

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67
Q

What are the 3 scenarios of bat evolution?

A

Echolocation first
Flight first
Tandem evolution

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68
Q

What species have been growing the most in recent years?

A

Primates, especially neotropical species

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69
Q

What are 3 of the newest species?

A

Lesula
Saola
Beaked whale species

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70
Q

What is invasiness?

A

The degree of discomfort, stress or pain experience by the study animal

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71
Q

What are the 5 categories of invasiness?

A

Experiments on most invertebrates or on live isolates

Experiments which cause little or no discomfort or stress

Experiments which cause minor stress or pain of short duration

Experiments which cause moderate to severe distress or discomfort

Procedures which cause severe pain near, at, or above the pain tolerance threshold of unanesthetized conscious animals

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72
Q

What are the 3Rs in animal care?

A

Replacement
Reduction
Refinement

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73
Q

What are the 5 methods of monitoring?

A 
Record of occurrence 
Tracking 
Fecal sampling
Hair sampling 
Camera traps
74
Q

How do you estimate abundance?

A

Use animal occurrences

75
Q

What are the assumptions and limitations to estimating abundance?

A

Births and deaths must be accounted for or ignored, and all members of a population have an equal chance of being caught

Abundance is always relative, not absolute counts, high precision but low potential accuracy

76
Q

How do you estimate population size?

A

Direct observation and counting of individuals

77
Q

What are the 4 types of surveys?

A

Stratification - area is divided into homogeneous blocks (requires previous knowledge of distribution)

Strip - area adjacent to a transcet within which all individuals are counted

Spacing - distance between sampling trajectories

Lines - transects from which the number of individuals and their distance from the line are recorded

78
Q

What are features of observational methods?

A

Observability
Variability
Behavioural states
Events

79
Q

What are the 5 types of observational sampling?

A

Focal sampling - continuous

Scan sampling - predetermined time intervals

Instantaneous sampling - sequentially recording behaviour at the end of each observation interval

All occurrences sampling - all occurrences of a particular event

Ad libitum sampling - all states or events of all organisms in a group

80
Q

What are the 3 ways to lay down traps?

A

Transcets
Grids
Opportunistic

81
Q

What are the 3 types of drugs?

A

Analgesics
Anesthetics
Immoblizers

82
Q

What are the 4 stages of chemical immobilization?

A

Injection
Induction
Immobilization/anesthesia
Recovery

83
Q

What are risks of capturing animals?

A 
Physical injury
Hyperthermia/hypothermia 
Respiratory and cardiac stress
Convulsions or seizures
Capture myopathy
84
Q

What are 2 reasons for doing lethal captures?

A

Samples that cannot be taken from live animals

Removals

85
Q

What are 9 types of field methods?

A 
Nutritional condition
Reproductive status 
Body measurements
Monitoring 
Marking
Capture
Observations 
Surveys 
Abundance estimations
86
Q

What are the 6 types of lab methods?

A 
Body measurements
Reproductive status 
Nutritional condition
Metabolism 
Stable isotope analysis
Genetic and molecular analysis
87
Q

What are the 2 subclasses of mammalia?

A

Prototheria

Theria

88
Q

What is the order of prototheria, metetheria and eutheria?

A

Monotremes
Marsupials
Placentals

89
Q

What are the infraclasses of theria?

A

Metatheria

Eutheria

90
Q

What are the 11 non-skeletal characteristics of mammals?

A 
Hair/fur
Sebaceous and sweat glands 
Mammary glands
Muscular diaphragm 
Endothermy, high metabolic rate
Complete double circulation of blood
4 Chambered heart with left aortic arch
Anucleate erythrocytes 
Loss of renal-portal system 
Urea as nitrogenous waste 
Specialized facial musculature
91
Q

What are the 10 skeletal characteristics of mammals?

A 
Dentary-squamosal jaw joint
Articular-quadrate joint is not jaw hinge 
3 Middle ear ossicles 
Mandible of one bone only (dentary) 
Secondary palate 
Double occipital condyle 
Mammalian-type atlas/axis complex 
Cusps on cheek teeth 
No lumbar ribs 
Mammalian-type ethmo-turbinate bones
92
Q

What is a phylogeny?

A

The history of some group of species

93
Q

What are the 2 major evolutionary trends of mammals?

A

Increased activity and endurance

Reduced number of parts while maintaining performance

94
Q

What is the order of evolutionary periods when mammals were around and what were the major events?

A

Pennsylvanian - appearance of synapsids

Permian - therapsids, cynodonts

Triassic - appearance of mammals

Jurassic - archaic mammals

Cretaceous - appearance of metatherians and eutherians

Paleogene - adaptive radiation of metatherians and eutherians

95
Q

What are the 12 parts of the synapsid skull?

A 
Premaxilia 
Maxilia 
Nasal 
Lacrimal 
Prefrontal 
Postfrontal
Frontal 
Orbit 
Postorbial 
Parietal 
Temporal opening
Squamosal 
Jugal
96
Q

What are the 3 types of amniotes?

A

Synapsida
Anapsida
Diapsida

97
Q

What are the 2 types of synapsids and what was their main difference?

A

Pelycosauria - most primitive
Therapsida - most advanced, top carnivore

Therapsida has:
Larger temporal opening
Larger dentary and smaller angular
Heterodont cheekteeth

98
Q

What are the 3 suborders of pelycosauria?

A

Ophiacodontia - most primitive
Edaphosauria - herbivores
Sphenacodontia - carnivores

99
Q

What are the 2 suborders of therapsida?

A

Anomodontia - herbivores

Theriodontia - carnivores

100
Q

What traits did cyondonts evolve after therapsids?

A

Secondary palate - allows breathing during eating, and suckling as a neonate
Double occipital condyles - finer control of head, reduced tension on spinal cord

101
Q

What’s the biggest difference between mammals and early synapsids, what was the problem, and what as the trait of the intermediate?

A

Middle ear ossicles and jaw bones.

There’s no transitional form that has 2-3 jaw bones or 2 ear bones.

A cyondont intermediate had 2 functional jaw articulations (entary-squamosal and quadrate-articular). It allowed the post-dentary bones to assume a new function.

102
Q

What are the advantages to having larger dentary bones?

A

Higher food processing for higher metabolic rate

Stronger jaw muscles

103
Q

What are the names of the modern mammal angular and quadrate bones?

A

Malleus and incus (stapes was always there)

104
Q

Is there one common ancestor for mammals?

A

Yes, mammals are monophylectic. Prototheria and theria split from therapsida after they evolved the dentary-squamosal articulation.

105
Q

What is a cusp and what were the patterns on therapsids, primitive mammals and derived mammals?

A

Projection or elevation on the occlusal surface of the tooth.

Therapsids had no cusps
Primitive mammals had 3 cusps in a row (triconodonta)
Derived mammals had cusps in a triangular pattern (symmetrodont)

106
Q

What are tribosphenic molars and what mammals have them?

A

Tooth with a pair of triangular patterns.
Lower molar has a trigonid (raised) and a talonid (flat), while upper molar has a trigon.

They’re seen in modern marsupials and insectivores

107
Q

When were pigs, horses and cats domesticated?

A

About 6,000 years ago
About 5,500 years ago
Unknown for cats, but they were first domesticated by Egyptians

108
Q

Why study teeth?

A

Some fossil lineages are only known from teeth
Know trophic level
Feeding specialization
Secondary function such as grooming, defense
Know individual characteristics such as age or sex

109
Q

What 2 levels of information do teeth tell you?

A

Form of teeth tells you about the species

Wear of teeth tells you about the individual

110
Q

What is a caveat?

A

Wear only informative for closed-rotted teeth

111
Q

What is the wear of the teeth dependent on?

A

Tooth hardness

Food quality

112
Q

What is enamel?

A

Hard, heavy outer coating of dentine in the crown. It can’t regenerate

113
Q

What animals don’t have enamel and why?

A

Aardvarks and armadillos, because their diet is easy to consume and doesn’t require any chewing.

114
Q

What is dentine?

A

The main body of the tooth, it contains the pulp cavity which has blood and nerves, and provides the tooth is nutrients

115
Q

What is the cementum?

A

Modified bony material that covers the dentine in the root of the tooth.
It’s reformed annually.
It anchors the tooth to the alveolus with connective tissue

116
Q

What are the 2 types of tooth growth?

A

Open-rooted (ever going) - pulp cavity open at base

Closed-rooted (no growing, wearing) - pulp cavity closes

117
Q

Why are most mammals heterodont, and what groups aren’t?

A

Improves efficiency with obtaining and processing food.

Homodonts have only one kind of tooth, and Edentate have few or no teeth.

118
Q

What is dental formulae?

A

It desctibes the number and position of teeth

119
Q

What are the 2 types of crown height?

A

Brachyodont - low-crowned

Hypsodont - high-crowned

120
Q

What are quadritubercular teeth?

A

Molars with 4 cusps, like in humans

121
Q

What are the 9 types of molars?

A 
Tribosphenic 
Tuberculo-sectorial
Sectorial 
Piscivorous 
Myrmecophagus 
Homodont 
Bunodont 
Selenodont 
Lophodont
122
Q

What are myrmecophagus teeth?

A

Teeth that play no role in processing food.
Degeneration from tribosphenic molars
Pegs of dentine without enamel
Extrememe edentate

123
Q

What are tuberculo-sectorial molars?

A

Talonid basin from tribosphenic molar is retained, but it’s combined with carnassial shearing tooth.
*Carnassials are the upper 4th premolar and the bottom first molar
Molars can also crush bone

124
Q

What are sectorial molars

A

Carnassial specialization, without crushing heel, only for shearing
Found in felidae

125
Q

What are piscivorous molars

A

Strongly recurved cusps, used for grasping prey (similar to homodont).
Elaborate cusps for straining prey from water when filter feeding

126
Q

What are bunodont molars?

A

Low-crowned, squarish teeth with rounded cusps used for crushing and grinding
Found in pigs, primates, some carnivores

127
Q

What are lophodont molars?

A

Cusps form continuous, straight cross-ridges that are perpendicular or parallel to the jaw, used for efficient grinding
Only in high-crowned teeth

128
Q

What are selenodont molars?

A

Lophs are isolated and crescent-shaped in a longitudinal arrangement
Teeth wear down unevenly to maintain the ridges

129
Q

What is a diphyodont?

A

An animal that has two types of teeth in their lifetime

Deciduous milk teeth are replaced by permanent adult teeth

130
Q

What is the difference between tooth replacement in eutherians and metatherians?

A

In eutherians, all teeth except molars have deciduous counterparts

In metatherians, only premolars (except last) and molars have deciduous counterparts

131
Q

What is supernumerary dentition?

A

Extra teeth in a position

132
Q

What is agenesis?

A

Reduced number of teeth in a position

133
Q

What is the difference between herbivores and carnivores when it comes to jaw articulation?

A

Articulation of mandibular condyle with the fossa of the cranium, and the primary muscle group closing the jaw

Carnivores’ articulation is level with with dentition, while herbivores’ articulation is above denition

Temporalis the the primary chewing muscle for carnivores while the masseter is the primary chewing muscle for herbivores

134
Q

What factors affect the mode of feeding?

A 
size
energy content 
availability 
capturing 
processing
135
Q

How do terrestrial insectivores capture individual prey and colonial prey?

A

Grasping with incisors
Specialized sensory organs allow niche exploitation
Elongated digits to capture prey

Elongated snouts and forelimbs for digging
Long, sticky tongues
Reduced dentition or edentate

136
Q

How do aerial insectivores capture prey?

A

Gleaning or open air foraging

Captured using mouth or uropatagium

137
Q

How is food processed in insectivores?

A

Simple digestion - goes in stomach, goes though short intestine, comes out of anus
Insects are high energy food, so simple digestion is enough

138
Q

What is a sanguinivore?

A

Blood eater

139
Q

What are 4 traits of aerial carnivores?

A

Reduced rostrum and blade like incisors and canines
Reduced cheekteeth
Tubular, extended stomach
Thin walled intestine
Two-phase renal function - water is dumped first, then waste

140
Q

How is food processed in carnivores?

A

Simple digestive system with small or absent cecum

High energy diet, lots of protein

141
Q

What are the 2 types of fermentation for herbivores?

A

Foregut and hindgut fermentaion

142
Q

What is the process of foregut fermentation?

A

Complex, multichambered stomach with cellulose-digesting microorganisms.

Food enters rumen and is mixed with microorganisms
Food goes to reticulum and forms a cud
Cud is regurgitated and chewed
Food is swallowed again and enters the omasum where it’s kneaded
Food passes to true stomach where digestive enzymes kill and breakdown microorganisms
Food moves to small intestine

143
Q

What is the process of hindgut fermentation?

A

Cellulose-digesting microorganisms in colon/cecum

Chemical breakdown in mouth with salivary enzymes
Digestive enzymes continue to work in simple stomach
Nutrients absorbed in small intestine
Small particles move to cecum and large particles move through the large intestine and pass a feces
Fermentation occurs in colon or cecum

144
Q

What is coprophgy?

A

A type of hind gut fermentation where the animal eats feces to process more nutrients that were not processed in the cecum

145
Q

What is the 4 main benefits to foregut fermentation?

A

More efficient breakdown of food
Microorganisms are also food
Detoxification of alkaloids
Allows for addition nutrient intake during rest

146
Q

What are the 4 main benefirs to hindgut fermentation?

A

Process food quickly
Large volumes of food can be consumed
More effective when food has high amounts of indigestible material
Supports more generalist feeding

147
Q

What is the evolutionary paradox of hair and what was the solution?

A

Hair provides insulation, which would be maladaptive for an ectothermic ancestor. However, there’s evidence that endothermy erupted before hair did.

148
Q

What are the 2 types of hair growth?

A

Angora - continuous

Definitive - grows to a certain length and falls out

149
Q

What are the 3 layers of hair shafts?

A

Medulla - core
Cortex - tightly-packed cells with melanin
Cuticle - thin, transparent scales

150
Q

What are the 2 components of pelage?

A

Underfur - short, dense, fine. creates dead space for insulation

Guard hairs - long, coarse. protects underfur

151
Q

What are the 3 secondary functions of guard hairs?

A

Camouflage
Disruptive colouring
Defense

152
Q

What are the 3 patterns of moulting?

A

Post-juvenile
Annual
Seasonal

153
Q

What is vibrissae?

A

Long, stiff hair enervated at the base.

Functions as tactile receptors

154
Q

What are rhino horns?

A

Not true horns due to them not having a bony core or keratinized sheath, nor is it attached to the skull

155
Q

What is a horn?

A

An extension of of the frontal bone, with an outer keratin sheath. It’s not vascularized, it grows continuously, it’s never shed and has no branches

156
Q

What’s different about pronghorn horns?

A

The keratinized sheath sheds, but the bony core doesn’t

157
Q

What makes giraffe horns different?

A

They have ossicones. They develop differently and are sutured to the skull, rather than growing from it. They’re also covered in hairy skin

158
Q

What are antlers?

A

Bone grows from pedicel on the frontal bone. When they are growing, they are covered in vascularized velvet, which sheds when growth is complete.
They are branched and regrow annually.

159
Q

What are the 3 hypotheses for female caribou having antlers?

A

Female defense hypothesis
Andromimicry hypothesis
Resource defense hypothesis

160
Q

What are the traits of monotreme female reproductive tracts?

A

Cloaca
Ovaries produce large follicles
Eggs are able to absorb nutrients in oviduct
Separate uteri with separate openings into the urogenital sinus

161
Q

What are the traits of marsupial female reproductive tracts?

A

Females have bifurcated (paired) reproductive tract
Lateral vaginae on both sides and medial vaginal canal
Duplex uteri
Youlk-sac placenta, less efficient that eutherian placenta
Short gestation and birth

162
Q

What are the 4 types of uterine in placentals and what animals have them?

A

Duplex - two separate uterine horns and two cervix (lagomorphs and rodents)
Bipartite - two separate uterine horns, one cervix (most carnivores and whales)
Bicornuate - distal separation of uterine horns, single cervix (bats, ungulates, primitive primates)
Simplex - no separation between uterine horns, single cervix (higher primates, some bats)

163
Q

What are the 2 types of placentas and what are their properties?

A 
Chorioviteliine:
enlarged yolk sac
lack villi
weak mechanical connection to uterine lining 
embryo doesn't implant deeply
Chorioallantoic:
embryo embeds deeply into endometrium lining
strong connection due to villi 
uterus becomes highly vascularized 
allows greater development of embryo
164
Q

What are the 4 types of chorioallantoic placentas and what animals have them?

A

Diffuse - even distribution of villi (non-ruminating artiodactyles, perissodactyles, lemurs)
Cotyledonary - villi distributed in patches (ruminating artiodactyls)
Zonary - continuous band (carnivores)
Discoid - 1-2 disk-shaped areas (primates, lagomorphs, bats)

165
Q

What are the 6 reproductive stages?

A 
Ovulation
Copulation 
Fertilization 
Implantation 
Gestation 
Partuition (birth)
Lactation
166
Q

What are the 5 variations to the reproductive stages?

A 
Induced ovulation
Delayed fertilization
Delayed implantation
Delayed development 
Embryonic diapause
167
Q

What is the order of the reproductive stages for induced ovulation and what animals experience this?

A

Copulation
Then everything else is the same

Seen in rabbits, all cats

168
Q

What is the order of the reproductive stages for delayed fertilization and what animals experience this?

A

Copulation
Delay
Then everything is the same

Seen in bats

169
Q

What is the order of the reproductive stages for delayed implantation and what animals experience this?

A 
Ovulation 
Copulation
Fertilization
Delay
Then everything is the same

Seen in small, solitary carnivores, seals, bears, rodents

170
Q

What is the order of the reproductive stages for delayed development and what animals experience this?

A

Up until implantation, everything is the same
Delay
Then everything is the same

Seen in bats

171
Q

What is the order of the reproductive stages for embryonic diapause and what animals experience this?

A

Similar to delayed development, but the presence of other babies causes the embryo to delay its growth. When the baby stops suckling, the embryo would grow

Only seem to be seen in red kangaroos

172
Q

What are the 3 roles of lactation?

A

Provides nutrients
Provides immunity
Bonds mother to child

173
Q

What is Aristotle’s theory of teat number?

A

The number of teats is correlated with the size of the litter.
Litter size is about half of the amount of mammae available

174
Q

What are the 4 evolutionary hypotheses on lactation?

A

Themoregulatory hypothesis - secretions helped warm eggs
Water balance hypothesis - young learned how to lick water from secretions
Behavioural hypothesis - pheromone in secretions helped bond young to mother
Immunological hypothesis - secretions provided anti-bacterial and anti-fungal protection

175
Q

What is the article by DelGiudice (Surplus killing of white-tailed deer by wolves in northcentral minnesota) about, what were the hypotheses, predictions, methods and what were the major findings?

A

They wanted to see why wolves killed deer excessively.

If excessive killing of deer is related to winter severity and snow depth, then more kills would occur when snow depths are > 70cm.

They used telemetry to monitor and locate the deer, tracking to see if they were killed by wolves and obtained bone marrow to find fat quantity in deer.

In years were there was > 70cm snow depth for 4-8 weeks, deer were excessively killed. It took more energy to escape, and deer ended up using almost all of their fat stores.

176
Q

What is the article by Arnemo et al. (Risk of capture-related mortality in large free-ranging mammals: experiences from Scandinavia) about?

A

It mentions how anesthesia in a controlled setting has very low mortality rates (1-0.05%) but this isn’t the same for wild animals (2%).

They mentioned how direct, indirect and secondary factors lead to mortality, such as hypothermia, drowning during induction, or trauma from traps, leads to higher mortality rates when studying captured wild animals.

Arnemo gives suggestions to lower the mortality rate, due to 2% being unacceptable.

177
Q

What was the article by Wilson (Adaptive radiation of multiturberculate mammals before the extinction of dinosaurs) about and what were the major findings?

A

It mentions how multiturberculate mammals radiated before the cretaceous-paleogene extinction, which was what help facilitate the radiation of modern mammals.

From 160-50 million years ago, multiturberculate mammals had changes in the cusps of their cheekteeth. They went from being simple to more complex. They used OPC to calculate this. Relating to modern mammals, a lower OPC signified a carnivorous diet, which a higher OPC signified a herbivorous diet. Multiturberculate species became more herbivorous over time, until the K-Pg extinction, where they went back to being more carnivorous.

As time went on, multiturberculate species richness increased as well as body size, despite the presence of dinosaurs. This could have been due to the increase of plant diversity and the exploitation of new niches where new plants grew. This also explains why they became more herbivorous.

After the K-Pg extinction, there was more room for modern mammals to grow and evolve. This new competition could have caused multiturberculate species decrease in numbers.

178
Q

What was the article by Clutton-Brock et al. (Fitness costs of gestation and lactation in wild mammals) about, what were the methods and findings?

A

Life histories of about 300 female red deer in food limited populations were recorded.

Females who didn’t produce young, or had young that died before 3 weeks had high survivorship, while females that produced young that died younger than 12 months or had young that survived past 12 months had decreasing survivorship as rainfall increased and food became more scarce. This same trend was seen for the ability to produce young in following years.

Mothers who lost their calves early or who didn’t produce any were able to produce significantly heavier calves in following years than the mothers who’s calves survived less than or past 12 months.

There was a link between lactation, survivorship and fecundity. Mothers who lactated for a long period of time had lower survivorship and decreased fecundity due to the amount of energy needed to lactate.

179
Q

What was the hypothesis, prediction and major findings of the article by Milena et al. (Arboreality has allowed for the evolution of increased longevity in mammals)?

A

Since bats and birds have long lifespans due too having a lower extrinsic mortality rate, they predicted that mammals that are arboral would have longer lifespans than terrestrial counterparts due to them having lower extrinsic mortality rates.

Arboral mammals generally have longer life spans, which semiarboral mammals have lifespans longer than terrestrial counterparts, but lower than arboral counterparts. This trend is not as strong with marsupials. Socialness of of animals, such as higher primates increases lifespan as well.

180
Q

What are the major findings from the article “the evolution of social monogamy in mammals” by Lukas and Clutton-Brock?

A

Not many mammals are socially monogamous; most tend to either be solitary or in groups.
It’s assumed that the ancestral condition had solitary females and roaming males.

Social monogamy could have arose from increased female competition, low female tolerance (by other females) and low female densities. This caused males to guard single females due to them being unable to guard multiple at once.

In unpredictable environments, socially monogamous pairs also became sexually monogamous, and formed groups where offspring is raised by family. Biparental care is a consequence of monogamy, not a precursor to monogamy.

Mammalogy (1 decks)

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