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Anatomy and Physiology 2 > Exam #5 > Flashcards

Exam #5 Flashcards

1
Q

Structure/Function of the ureters:

A

Retroperitoneal
3 layers:
-Mucosa (transitional epithelium)
-Muscularis (smooth muscle, contract in response to stretch)
-Adventitia (outer fibrous connective tissue)

Transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder/As bladder pressure increases, distal ends of ureters close, preventing back flow of urine.

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2
Q

Structure/Function of the urinary bladder:

A

Layers of the bladder wall (2):
-Mucosa (transitional epithelial mucosa)
-Muscularis (thick detrusor muscle- contains three layers of smooth muscle)
* inner and outer longitudinal layers with circular middle layer

Elastic temporary storage reservoir for urine. Collapses when empty. Moderately full bladder can hold ~500ml (1 pint)
can hold twice that if needed but bladder can burst if too full

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3
Q

Structure/Function of the urethra:

A

Tube that transports urine out of the body

Lining epithelium:
*consists of mostly pseudostratified columnar epithelium except for
-transitional epithelium near bladder
-stratified squamous epithelium near external urethral orifice

Sphincters:
-internal urethral sphincter (involuntary smooth muscle at bladder-urethra junction
-external urethral sphincter (voluntary skeletal muscle surrounding urethra as it passes through pelvic floor)

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4
Q

How does the urethra vary in men vs women?

A

The length. Men’s urethras are about 15cm long while women’s are 3-4cm

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5
Q

The functions of the kidney:

A

-Regulating total water volume and total solute concentration in water

-Regulating ion concentrations in extracellular fluid

-Ensuring long term acid-base balance

-Excreting metabolic wastes, toxins and drugs

-Producing erythropoietin (produces RBC’s) and renin

-Activating vitamin D

-Carrying out gluconeogenesis if needed

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6
Q

Which nitrogenous wastes are excreted by the kidney?

A

Ammonia, urea and uric acid

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7
Q

The external and internal anatomy of the kidney

A

EXTERNAL: kidneys are located in the retroperitoneal space, located between T12 and L5

-Right kidney is crowded by liver so it’s lower than the left

-Adrenal glands sit on top each kidney

INTERNAL: has three distinct regions

-Renal cortex (granular looking superficial region)

-Renal medulla (deep to cortex, composed of cone-shaped medullary pyramids)

-Renal pelvis (funnel shape tube continuous with ureter)
-Contains major and minor calyces

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8
Q

The sequence of vessels in which blood flows in and out of the kidney

A

IN (arterial): renal—> segmental—> interlobar—> arcuate—> cortical radiate

OUT (venous): cortical radiate—> arcuate—> interlobar—> renal (no segmental)

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9
Q

The microanatomy of the kidney

A

Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT): simple cuboidal epithelial cells with dense microvilli that form brush border

Descending limb: simple squamous epithelium

Nephron loop: thin-segment cells

Ascending limb: cuboidal or columnar cells

Distal convoluted tubule (DCT): simple cuboidal cells w/ very few microvilli

Collecting duct cells: Principal cells (maintain water/Na+ balance) And Intercalated cells (cuboidal cells that help maintain acid-base balance of blood)

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10
Q

The structural/functional unit of the kidney

A

The nephron

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11
Q

Describe the structure of the nephron: renal corpuscle and tubule

A

The renal corpuscle consists of the glomerulus and the glomerular capsule. The renal tubule consists of the tube running from the glomerulus to the collecting duct. Includes the PCT and the DCT

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12
Q

What accounts for the high blood pressure in the glomerulus?

A

Because the afferent arterioles (in door) are much larger in diameter than efferent arterioles (out door)

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13
Q

Describe glomerular filtration
-which substances are filtered out of the blood?
-which substances are not filtered out of the blood?

A

Produces cell and protein-free filtrate
-passive process (no energy required)
-hydrostatic pressure forces fluids and solutes through filtration membrane into glomerular capsule
-no reabsorption into capillaries of glomerulus occurs

FILTERED: water, glucose, amino acids and nitrogenous wastes
*must be smaller than 3nm to pass

NOT FILTERED: plasma proteins
-prevents loss of all water to capsular space
-proteins filtrate indicate membrane problem

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14
Q

In general, describe tubular resorption:
which substances in the filtrate are reabsorbed? not reabsorbed?

A

Quickly reclaims most of tubular contents and returns them to the blood
-selective transepithelial process

REABSORBED: amino acids, glucose and salt

NOT REABSORBED: water and salt

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15
Q

Which substances are reabsorbed in the: PCT (proximal convoluted tubule)

A

*Site of most reabsorption

-all nutrients, such as glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed

-65% of Na+ and water reabsorbed

-many ions

-almost all uric acid and ~half of urea (later secreted back into filtrate)

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16
Q

When substances are reabsorbed in the loop of henle? (descending and ascending limb)

A

Descending limb: H2O can leave, solutes cannot

Ascending limb: H2O cannot leave, solutes can
-Thin segment is passive to Na+ movement
-Thick segment transports Na+ into cell
-Some Na+ can pass into cell by paracellular route in this area of the limb

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17
Q

Which substances are reabsorbed into the: DCT

A

*resorption is hormonally regulated in these areas

Hormones: ADH/Aldosterone/Atrial natriuetic peptide/Parathyroid hormone

Water, Na+ and Ca2+

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18
Q

The function of the hormone: ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)

A

*Reduces blood Na+, resulting in decreased blood volume and blood pressure

-Released by cardiac atrial cells if blood volume or pressure is elevated

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19
Q

The function of the hormone: ADH antidiuretic hormone

A

-Released by posterior pituitary gland

-Causes principal cells of collecting ducts to insert aquaporins in apical membranes increasing water reabsorption

-Increased ADH levels cause increase in water reabsorption (causes kidneys to release less water)

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20
Q

The function of the hormone: aldosterone

A

-Functions: increases blood pressure by increasing sodium reabsorption and decreases K+ (potassium) levels

-Targets collecting ducts (principal cells) and distal DCT

*Promotes synthesis of apical Na+ and K+ channels and Na+/-K+/ATPases for Na+ resorption (water follows)

-As a result, little Na+ leaves body
-Without aldosterone, daily loss of filtered Na+ would be 2% which is incompatible with life

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21
Q

Which hormone is involved in water retention?

A

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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22
Q

Which hormone is involved in sodium reabsorption?

A

Aldosterone

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23
Q

Which hormone would cause diuresis?

A

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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24
Q

What is the function of a diuretic?

A

Causes kidneys to produce more urine

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25
Q

Describe the normal composition of urine:

A

*95% water and 5% solutes
Nitrogenous wastes
-Urea (from amino acid breakdown) largest solute concentration
-Uric acid (from nucleic acid metabolism)
-Creatine (metabolite of creatine phosphate)

Other normal solutes found in urine
-Na+, K+, PO43-, SO42-, Ca2+, Mg2+ and HCO3-

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26
Q

Which substances should not be found in the urine of a healthy individual?

A

Abnormally high concentrations of any constitute, or abnormal components such as glucose, blood proteins, WBC’s and bile pigments

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27
Q

What role do the kidneys play in maintaining normal blood pH?

A

Adjust acid-base balance by adjusting amount of bicarbonate in blood by either:

-conserving (reabsorbing) or generating new HCO3- (bicarb)

-excreting HCO3- (bicarb)

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28
Q

What is the most important urinary buffer of H+?

A

Phosphate

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29
Q

What are the major endocrine glands/organs in the body?

A

GLANDS:
-Pituitary
-Thyroid
-Parathyroid
-Adrenal
-Pineal
-Thymus

ORGANS
-Hypothalamus (a neuroendocrine organ)
-Cells in small intestine, stomach kidney and heart
-Pancreas
-Gonads
-Placenta

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30
Q

How does the hypothalamus regulate the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary?

A

Hypothalamic hormones released into special blood vessels control the release of these hormones:

1) when stimulated, hypothalamic neurons secrete inhibiting hormones into the primary capillary plexus.

2) hypothalamic hormones travel through portal veins to the anterior pituitary where they stimulate/inhibit the release of hormones in the anterior pituitary

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31
Q

The hormones and functions of those hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary:

A

-Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): stimulates the thyroid to make thyroid hormones

-Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids (like cortisol) in response to stress

-Gonadotropic hormones: Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulate the gonads (testes and ovaries) to produce gametes and sex hormones

-Prolactin: causes mammillary glands to produce milk

-Melanocyte stimulating hormone: causes skin color changes in some animals, not humans

-Growth hormone (GH): promotes skeletal and muscular growth. Simulates the rate of protein synthesis

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32
Q

Which gland/organ does each anterior pituitary hormone act upon?

A

TSH- stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones

ACTH- stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids

FSH/LH- stimulates the testes and ovaries to produce gametes/sex hormones

PRL (prolactin) - stimulates the mammillary glands to produce milk

MSH (melanocyte-stimulating)-causes the skin to change color. not in humans

GH- stimulates the skeleton and muscles for growth, and the rate of protein synthesis

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33
Q

The hormones produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary:

A

-Oxytocin: strong stimulant of uterine contractions released during childbirth.
-Also acts and a hormonal trigger for milk ejection.
-Works via positive feedback mechanisms

-Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): targets kidney tubules to reabsorb more water to prevent or inhibit urine formation
-Release also triggered by pain, low BP and drugs
-Inhibited by alcohol/diuretics

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34
Q

The functions of each hormone produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary:

A

Oxytocin: stimulates uterine contractions and acts as a hormonal trigger for milk ejection (positive feedback)

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): targets kidney tubules to reabsorb more water to inhibit urine formation. Inhibited by alcohol or diuretics
-High conc. cause vasoconstriction

35
Q

The hormones and actions produced by the: thyroid gland

A

-Thyroxine (T4)
-Triiodothyronine (T3)
-Calcitonin

T3 and T4 affect virtually every cell in the body.

-Increases the metabolic rate but doesn’t have a target organ.

-They stimulate all cells of the body to metabolize at a faster rate

They regulate growth and development: critical for normal skeletal and nervous system development and reproductive capabilities

They maintain blood pressure: increases adrenergic receptors in blood vessels

Calcitonin: produced by parafollicular (C) cells in response to high Ca2+ levels
-Stimulates Ca2+ uptake and incorporation into bone matrix

36
Q

The hormones and actions produced by the: Parathyroid glands

A

Secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH): Most important hormone in Ca2+ homeostasis

-secreted in response to low levels of Ca2+ and inhibited by rising levels

-enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ and secretion of phosphate by kidneys

-promotes activation of vitamin D by kidneys which leads to increased absorption of Ca2+

37
Q

The hormones and actions produced by the: Adrenal medulla

A

Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (noradrenaline): bring about changes that occur during a fight or flight response, a short-term response to stress

Effects:
-Vasoconstriction
-Increased heart rate
-Increased blood-glucose levels
-Blood diverted to brain, heart and skeletal muscles

38
Q

The hormones and actions produced by the: Adrenal cortex
-mineralcorticoids
-glucocorticoids

A

*Produces hormones collectively called corticosteroids
(3 layers of cortical cells produce the different corticosteroids)

MINERALOCORTICOIDS: regulate ion and water balance in the body

-Aldosterone: targets the kidney where it promotes absorption of Na+ and excretion of K+

-Renin: secreted by the kidneys when blood Na+ levels and BP are low

GLUCOCORTICOIDS: regulate carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism

-Cortisol: active in the stress response and the repair of damaged tissues

-Cortisone: can relieve swelling and pain from inflammation

39
Q

The hormones and actions produced by the: pancreas
-alpha cells
-beta cells

A

*Has both exocrine and endocrine function

-Alpha cells: produce glucagon
secreted when blood glucose levels are low (between meals)
-stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose
-raises blood glucose levels

-Beta cells: produce insulin (hypoglycemic hormone)
-stimulates the uptake of glucose especially by liver cells
-lowers blood glucose levels
-responds directly to changes in blood glucose levels

40
Q

The hormones and actions produced by the: testes

A

*Testosterone

-initiates maturation of male reproductive organs

-causes appearance of male secondary sexual characteristics and sex drive

-necessary for normal sperm production

41
Q

The hormones and actions produced by the: ovaries

A

*Estrogens and progesterone

-maturation of reproductive organs

-appearance of secondary sexual characteristics

-progesterone causes breast development and changes in uterine mucosa

42
Q

The hormones and actions produced by the: pineal gland

A

*Melatonin (derived from serotonin)

-regulates sleep-wake cycle (circadian rhythm)

-affects timing of sexual maturation and puberty

-affects physiological processes that show rhythmic variations (temp/sleep/appetite)

-production of antioxidant and detoxification molecules in cells

43
Q

The hormones and actions produced by the: thymus gland

A

*Thymulin, thymopoietins and thymosins

-may be involved in normal development of T lymphocytes in immune response

-classified as hormones but act as paracrines

44
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: the kidney to reabsorb water

A

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

45
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: the kidneys to reabsorb Na+

A

Aldosterone

46
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: blood calcium levels to increase

A

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

47
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: blood calcium levels to decrease

A

Calcitonin

48
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: blood glucose levels to increase

A

Glucagon

49
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: blood glucose levels to decrease

A

Insulin

50
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: uterine contractions during labor

A

Oxytocin

51
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: milk production in mammillary glands

A

Prolactin/Oxytocin

52
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: increased metabolic rate

A

Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
-stimulate ALL calls of the body to metabolize at a faster rate

53
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: develop of the gametes (sperm/eggs)

A

Gonadotropic hormones:
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)

54
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: production of sex hormones
-testosterone
-estrogen
-progesterone

A
55
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: growth

A

Growth Hormone (GH)

56
Q

List the hormone(s) that cause: stress response

A

Cortisol

57
Q

The different mechanisms that help regulate GFR

A

Intrinsic controls (renal auto regulation): 120-125 ml/ minute
-maintains its own GFR

Extrinsic controls: maintain systemic blood pressure (increased GFR causes increased urine output which lowers blood pressure and vice versa)

-Nervous and endocrine mechanisms are main extrinsic controls

58
Q

What is Addison’s Disease?

A

HYPOsecretion of glucocorticoids
(malfunction of adrenal cortex)

-presents with bronzing of the skin

-without glucocorticoids, glucose can’t be replenished in a stressful situation

-even a mild infection can lead to death

59
Q

What is Cushing’s Syndrome?

A

Caused by HYPERsecretion of the glucocorticoids
(malfunction of adrenal cortex)

-caused by tumors in pituitary
gland, resulting in excess secretin

-depresses cartilage/bone formation and immune system, inhibits inflammation, disrupts neural/cardiovascular/gastrointestinal function

-most common cause is taking glucocorticoids to treat other conditions (like suppressing chronic inflammation)

60
Q

Describe diabetes type 1:

A
  • Is sometimes called juvenile diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)

-The pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin

-Autoimmune response destroys the pancreatic islets, must inject insulin daily

-Blood sugar way swing from low to high (hypoglycemia/hyperglycemia)

-Symptoms of high and low blood sugar are perspiration, pale skin, shallow breathing and anxiety

-Hypoglycemia= ingesting sugar
-Hyperglycemia=injecting insulin

61
Q

Describe diabetes type 2:

A

*Is known as adult-onset diabetes, or non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)

-Cells are insulin resistant, most adults have this type of diabetes

-Patient is often overweight or obese, adipose tissue produces a substance that impairs insulin receptor function

-Occurs more in certain families or ethnic groups (77% more common in african americans than whites)

-Can prevent/control disease by a diet and exercise. If this fails, oral drugs can help

62
Q

Hypothyroidism:

A

Underdeveloped thyroid at birth (congenital)

-Under secretion of thyroid hormone

63
Q

Hyperthyroidism: (Grave’s disease)

A

-Over secretion of thyroid hormone

-Thyroid gland is overactive and enlarges, forming a goiter

-Eyes protrude from edema (swelling) in eye socket tissue

64
Q

The function of the testes:

A

*Sperm-producing male gonads that lie within the scrotum

-Begin development in the abdominal cavity and descend into the last 2 months of fetal development

-If the testes don’t descend, sterility (the inability to produce offspring) usually follows

-The internal temperature of the body is too high to produce viable sperm

-The scrotum regulates their temperature, it holds them closer or further away from the body depending on temperature

65
Q

The function of the seminiferous tubules:

A

*Spermatogenesis (the production of sperm) occurs here.

-These undergo meisosis 2 to produce four spermatids which will mature into sperm

-Begins at puberty, around 14 years of age

-Adult males make ~90 million sperm daily

66
Q

The function of the interstitial cells:

A

Production of testosterone

67
Q

The function of the epididymis:

A

*Location where sperm mature

-Head: contains efferent ducts that empty into highly coiled duct of epididymis

-Body and tail: make up remainder of duct of the epididymis which is ~6m (20 feet)

-Nonmotile sperm enter and pass slowly at a rate that takes ~20 days, when they finally gain the ability to swim. They can be stored for several months

-During ejaculation, epididymis contracts, expelling sperm into vas deferens

68
Q

The function of the vas deferens
-what happens during a vasectomy?

A

*~45cm long

-Passes through inguinal canal to pelvic cavity

-Joins duct of seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct

-Smooth muscle walls propels sperm from epididymis to urethra

VASECTOMY: cutting and ligating ductus deferens
-nearly 100% effective form of birth control

69
Q

The function of the seminal vesicles:

A

*Contains smooth muscle that contracts during ejaculation

-On posterior bladder surface

-Produces viscous, alkaline seminal fluid. Yellow pigment fluoresces with UV light

-Comprises 70% volume of semen

-Duct of seminal gland joins ductus deferens to form ejaculatory duct

70
Q

The function of the prostate gland

A

-Encircles urethra inferior to bladder, size of a peach pit

-Consists of smooth muscle that contracts during ejaculation

-Secretes milky, slightly acidic fluid that contains enzymes and prostate specific antigen (PSA)

-Plays a role in sperm activation, makes up one third of semen volume

-Enters prosthetic urethra during ejaculation

71
Q

The function of Cowper’s (bulbourethral) gland

A

-Pea-sized glands inferior to prostate

-Produces thick, clear mucus during sexual arousal

-Lubricates glans penis

-Neutralize traces of acidic urine in urethra

72
Q

The role of LH hormone

A

*Binds to interstitial endocrine cells, prodding them to secrete testosterone

-Rising testosterone levels enhance spermatogenesis

73
Q

The role of FSH hormone

A

Stimulates spermatogenesis

74
Q

The role of testosterone hormone

A

*Stimulates sex organ maturation, development/maintenance of secondary sex characteristics and libido

-Before birth, the male fetus has 2/3 testosterone levels of an adult

-After brief rise in early infancy, blood levels recede and remain low through childhood

-Testosterone is produced by the interstitial endocrine cells located next to the seminiferous tubules

-Rising testosterone levels feed back on hypothalamus to inhibit GnRH and on pituitary to inhibit gonadotropin release

75
Q

What role do LH and FSH play in the female reproductive system?

A

*GnRH stimulates FSH and LH

-FSH and LH stimulate follicles to grow, mature and secrete sex hormones (estrogen)

-Increasing estrogen levels exert negative feedback inhibition on FSH and LH release

-LH surge triggers ovulation

-Negative feedback from rising estrogen and progesterone levels inhibits LH and FSH release

76
Q

What role to estrogen and progesterone play in the female reproductive system?

A

ESTROGENS:
-Promote oogenesis and follicle growth in ovary

-Exert anabolic effect on female reproductive tract

-Support rapid but short-lived growth spurts at puberty

-Induce secondary sex characteristics (breasts, increased fat deposits in hips/breasts, widening and lightning of pelvis)

-Also has metabolic effects, maintains low total blood cholesterol and high HDL levels and facilitates calcium uptake

PROGESTERONE:
-Works with estrogen to establish and regulate uterine cycle

-Promotes changes in cervical mucus

-Effects of placental progesterone during pregnancy: inhibits uterine motility/helps prepare breasts for lactation

77
Q

What is the function of the corpus luteum in the female reproductive system?

A

*After ovulation ruptured follicle collapses

-Remaining granulosa cells internal thecal cells enlarge to form the corpus luteum

-Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and some estrogen

-If no pregnancy occurs, corpus luteum degenerates into corpus albicans in 10 days

-If pregnancy occurs, corpus luteum produces hormones that sustain pregnancy until placenta takes over, at about 3 months

78
Q

Pyelitis

A

Infection of renal pelvis and calyces

79
Q

Pyelonephritis

A

*Infection/inflammation of entire kidney

-infections in females are usually caused by fecal bacteria entering urinary tract

-severe cases can cause swelling of kidney and abscess formation, pus may fill renal pelvis

-if left untreated, can result in kidney failure. Usually treated successfully with antibiotics

80
Q

The glomerulus

A

*Tuft of capillaries composed of fenestrated epithelium

-Allows for efficient filtrate formation

-Filtrate: plasma derived fluid that renal tubules process to form urine

81
Q

Functions of the reproductive system: (4 fold)

A

1) Formation of gametes (sperm/egg cells)
2) Sexual intercourse to join the gametes
3) Fertilization (combination of genetic info contains within gametes. A zygote is formed when sperm and egg fuse.
4) Gestation (support the development of the fetus until birth)

82
Q

What do you need to have in your diet in order to produce thyroid hormone?

A

Iodine

83
Q

What do you make in zona reticularis?

A

Gonadocorticoids
-weak sex hormones that are transformed into testosterone and estrogens estrogens
-examples: DHEA

Anatomy and Physiology 2 (1 decks)

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