Exam 4 Psychology Flashcards
(247 cards)
1
Q
Personality Definition
A
Personality refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways
2
Q
Where does the word “personality” come from?
A
The word personality comes from the Latin word persona. In the ancient world, a persona was a mask worn by an actor.
3
Q
How long has the concept of personality been studied?
A
The concept of personality has been studied for at least 2,000 years, beginning with Hippocrates in 370 BCE
4
Q
Hippocrates theorized that personality/behaviors are based on what four temperaments associated with the four fluids of the body?
A
- choleric temperament (yellow bile from the liver)
- melancholic temperament (black bile from the kidneys),
- sanguine temperament (red blood from the heart),
- phlegmatic temperament (white phlegm from the lungs)
5
Q
What Greek physician built on Hippocrates theory centuries later?
A
Galen
6
Q
What was Galen’s theory?
A
That both diseases and personality differences could be explained by imbalances in the humors and that each person exhibits one of the four temperaments.
(Ex: choleric person is passionate, ambitious, and bold)
7
Q
In 1780, What German physician proposed that distances between bumps on the skull reveal a person’s personality traits, character, and mental abilities?
A
Franz Gall
8
Q
Who else contributed to Galen’s development of the four primary temperaments?
A
- Immanuel Kant (in the 18th century)
- Wilhelm Wundt (in the 19th century)
9
Q
What did Wundt separate his description of personalities into?
A
- Vertical axis: strong from weak
(the melancholic and choleric temperaments from the phlegmatic and sanguine). - Horizontal axis: changeable temperaments
(choleric and sanguine) from the unchangeable ones (melancholic and phlegmatic)
10
Q
- The most controversial and misunderstood psychological theorist
- first to systematically study and theorize the workings of the unconscious mind (what we now associate with modern psychology)
A
Sigmund Freud (1865 - 1939)
11
Q
What was Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic perspective of personality?
A
He believed the unconscious drives influenced by sex and aggression, along with childhood sexuality, are the forces that influence our personality.
12
Q
What are the three interacting systems within our minds?
A
Id, ego, and superego
13
Q
What is the id?
A
- It contains our most primitive drives or urges
- Present from birth
- Directs impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex
14
Q
What is the superego?
A
- Develops when a child interacts with others learning social rules for right and wrong
- Strives for perfection and judges our behavior
15
Q
What is the ego?
A
- The rational part of our personality
- It helps the id satisfy its desires in a realistic way
16
Q
Defense Mechanism
A
An unconcious protective behavior s that aim to reduce anxiety
17
Q
What are the 8 defense mechanisms?
A
- Denial
- Displacement
- Projection
- Rationalization
- Reaction Formation
- Regression
- Repression
- Sublimation
18
Q
Denial
A
Refusing to accept real events because they are unpleasant
Ex: Kailia refuses to admit she has an alcohol problem although she is unable to go a single day without excessively drinking
19
Q
Displacement
A
Transferring inappropriate urges/behaviors onto a more acceptable or less threatening target
Ex: During lunch at a restaurant, Mark is angry at his older problem but doesn’t express it and becomes verbally abusive to the server
20
Q
Projection
A
Attributing unacceptable desires to other
Ex: Chris often cheats on her boyfriend because she suspects he is already cheating on her
21
Q
Rationalization
A
Justifying behaviors by substituting acceptable reasons for less-acceptable real reasons
Ex: Kim failed his history course because he did not study/attend class, but he told his roommates that he failed because the teacher didn’t like him
22
Q
Reaction Formation
A
Reducing anxiety by adopting beliefs contrary to your own beliefs
Ex: Nadia is angry with her coworker Beth for always arriving late to work after a night of partying, but she is nice and agreeable to Beth and affirms the partying as “cool”
23
Q
Regression
A
Returning to coping strategies for less mature stages of development
Ex: After failing to pass his doctoral examination, Giorgio spends days in bed cuddling his favorite childhood toy.
24
Q
Repression
A
Suppressing painful memories and thoughts
Ex: LaShea cannot remember her grandfather’s fatal heart attack, although she was present
25
Sublimation
Redirecting unacceptable desires through socially acceptable channels
Ex: Jerome's desire for revenge on the drunk driver who killed his son is channeled into a community support group for people who've lost loved ones to drunk driving
26
Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development
- Stage: Oral, Ages: 0-1
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
Conflict: Weaning off breast or bottle
Adult fixation: Smoking, overeating
- Stage: Anal, Ages: 1-3
Erogenous Zone: Anus
Conflict: Toilet Training
Adult fixation: Neatness, messiness
- Stage: Phallic, Ages: 3-6
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Conflict: Oedipus/Electra complex
Adult fixation: Vanity, overambition
- Stage: Latency, Ages: 6-12
Erogenous Zone: None
Conflict: None
Adult fixation: None
- Stage: Genital, Ages: 12+
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Conflict: None
Adult fixation: None
27
Who founded individual psychology (focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority) ?
Alfred Adler (1937-1956)
28
Inferiortiy Complex
A person's feelings that they lack wrth and don't measure up to the standards of others or of society
29
What 3 fundamental social tasks did Adler say we must all experience?
- Occupational tasks (careers)
- Societal tasks (friendship)
- Love tasks (finding an intimate partner for a long-term relationship)
30
Who proposed the theory that an individual's personality develops throughout the lifespan?
Erik Erikson
31
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development
Stage 1- Ages: 0-1
- Development task: Trust vs mistrust
- Description: Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met
Stage 2 - Ages: 1-3
- Development task: Autonomy vs shame/doubt
- Description: Sense of independence in many tasks develops
Stage 3 - Ages: 3-6
- Development task: Initiative vs guilt
- Description: Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped
Stage 4 - Ages: 7-11
- Development task: Industry vs inferiority
- Description: Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not
Stage 5 - Ages: 12-18
- Development task: Identity vs confusion
- Description: Experiment with and develop identity and roles
Stage 6 - Ages: 19-29
- Development task: Intimacy vs isolation
- Description: Establish intimacy and relationships with others
Stage 7 - Ages: 30-64
- Development task: Generativity vs stagnation
- Description: Contribute to society and be part of a family
Stage 8 - Ages: 65+
- Development task: integrity vs despair
- Description: Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions
32
Who developed the theory of analytical psychology (Focuses on balancing opposing forces on conscious and unconscious thought, and experience within one's personality) ?
Carl Jung
33
Collective unconcious
The universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to us all.
34
Archetypes
Ancestral memories that are represented by universal themes in various cultures expressed through literature, art and dreams
35
Jung two attidues toward life
Extroversion and Introversion
Introvert
- Energized by being alone
- Avoids attention
- Speaks slowly and softly
- Thinks before speaking
- Stays on one topic
- Prefers written communication
- Pays attention easily
Cautious
Extrovert:
- Energized by being with others
- Seeks attention
- Speeks quickly and loudly
- Thinks out loud
- Jumps from topic to topic
- Prefers verbal communication
- Distractible
- Acts first, thinks later
36
Who's theories focuses on the role of unconscious anxiety?
Karen Horney
37
Horney's Coping Styles
Moving toward people
- Affiliation and dependence
Ex: Child seeking positive attention/affection from parent; adult needing love
Moving against people
- Aggression and manipulation
Ex: Child fighting/bullying other children; adult who is abrasive and verbally hurtful, or who exploits others
Moving away from people
- Detachment and isolation
Ex: Child withdrawn from the world and isolated; adult loner
38
Who created the social cognitive theory (emphasizes both learning and cognition as sources of individual difference in personality) ?
Albert Bandura
39
What concept did Bandura propose that stated that cognitive process, behavior, and context all interact, each factor influencing and being influenced by other simultaneously?
Reciprocal determinism
40
Self efficacy
Our level of confidence in our own abilities, developed through our social experiences
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Who created the concept of locus of control (Our beliefs about the power we have over our lives) ?
Julian Rotter
42
Situationism
The view that our behavior and ations are determined by our immediate enviroment and surroundings
43
Who created the "Marshmallow study" and believed an individual's behavior is influenced by two things- the specific attributes of a given situation and the manner in which he perceives the situation?
Walter Mischel
44
What is the Marshmallow Study?
The study on self-regulation (aka will power) - ability to delay gratification
- He placed children in a room with one marshmallow on the table. He told them they could either eat it now, or wait until the researcher returned to recieve another one.
45
Who studied healthy, creative, production people (Eleanor Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln) and found they were all open, creative, loving, spontaneous, compassionate, concerned for others, and accepted themselves?
Abraham Maslow
46
Who linked personatlity to self-concept, divided the self into ideal self and real self, and believed we needed to find congruence between the ideal self and the real self?
Carl Rogers
47
Ideal self
The person you would like to be
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Real self
The person you actually are
49
High congruence
Greater sense of self-worth and a healthy productive life
50
Incongruence
Maladjustment
51
Heritability
Refers to the proportion of difference among people that is attributed to genetics
52
Minnesota study of Twins Reared apart:
- Identical twins raised together or apart have similar personalities
53
Temperament
- Appears early in life (suggesting a biological basis)
- Babies can be categorized into one of three temperaments - Easy, difficult, or slow to warm up
- Two dimensions of temperament important to adult personality:
Reactivity and Self-regulating
54
Who believed body types could be linked to personality?
William H. Sheldon
55
What are the 3 somatotypes Sheldon proposed?
1. Endomorphs
relaxed, comfortable, good-humored, even-tempered, sociable, and tolerant
2. Mesomorphs
adventurous, assertive, competitive, and fearless
3. Ectomorphs
Anxious, self-conscious, artistic, thoughtful, quiet, and private
56
Who found 4,500 words in the English language to describe people and organized them into three categories?
Gordon Allport
57
What 3 categories did Allport organized the 4,500 words into?
1. Cardinal traits
Dominates entire personality (rare)
2. Central traits
make up our personality
3. Secondary traits - less obvious/consistent, present under certain circumstances (Ex: preferences, attitudes)
58
Who narrowed Allport's list to about 171 traits ad identified 16 dimensions of personality (Instead of being present/absent, people are scored on a continuum) ?
Raymond Cattell
59
Who focused on temperament and believed our personality traits are influenced by our genetic inheritance?
Hans and Sybil Eysenck
60
What 2 personality dimensions did Hans and Sybil create?
1. Extroversion/Introversion
- High in extroversion: sociable , outgoing
- High in introversion: high need to be alone, engage in solitary behaviors
2. Neuroticism/Stability
- High in neuroticism: anxious, overactive, sympathetic nervous system
- High in stability - more emotionally stable
61
Five Factor Model (Ocean Test)
1. Openness
(Imagination, feelings, actions, ideas)
- Low score: Practical, conventional, prefers routine
- High score: curious, wide range of interests, independent
2. Conscientiousness (competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, goal driven)
- Low score: impulsive, careless, disorganized
- High score: hardworking, dependable, organized
3. Extroversion
(sociability, assertiveness, emotional expression)
- Low score: quiet, reserved, withdrawn
- High score: outgoing, warm, seeks adventure
4. Agreeableness
(cooperative, trustworthy, good natured)
- Low score: critical, uncooperative, suspicious
- High score: helpful, trusting, empathetic
5. Neuroticism
(tendency toward unstable emotions)
- Low score: calm, even tempered, secure
- High score: Anxious, unhappy, prone to negative emotions
62
The HEXACO Traits
(H) Honesty-humility
Sincerity, modesty, faithfulness
(E) Emotionality
Sentimentality, anxiety, sensitivity,
(X) Extroversion
Sociability, talkativeness, boldness
(A) Agreeableness
Patience, tolerance, gentleness
(C) Conscientiousness
Organization, thoroughness, precision
(O) Openness
Creativity, inquisitiveness, innovations
63
Culture
Beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society
64
Asian cultures
More collectivist, tend to be less extroverted
65
Central/South American cultures
Tend to score higher on openness to experience
66
Europeans
Tend to score higher on neuroticism
67
Selective Migration
People choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs
68
Individualist cultures
- Value independence, competition, and personal achievement
- Mainly Wester nations such as the U.S, England, Australia
People display more personally oriented personality traits
69
Collectivist Cultures
- Value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs
- Asia, Africa, and South America
- People display more socially oriented personality traits
70
Examples of self report inventories
1. Self- Report inventories
2. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
3. Likert Scales
4.
71
Examples of Projective tests
1. Rorschach Inkblot Test
2. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
3. Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)
72
Social Psychology
Deals with all kinds of interactions between people, spanning a wide range of how we connect
73
Intrapersonal topics
Emotions and attitudes, the self, and social cognition
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Interpersonal topics
Helping behavior, aggression, prejudice and discrimination, attraction and close relationship, and group processes and intergroup relationships
75
Situationism
The view that our behavior and actions are determined by our immediate environment and surroundings
76
Dispositionism
The view that our behavior is determined by internal factors (attributes of a person such as personality traits and temperament).
77
Fundamental attribution error
Tendency to overemphasize internal factors as explanations/attributions for the behavior is due to situational variables
78
Fundamental Attribution Error
the tendency people have to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others' behavior
Ex: People from collectivistic cultures such as Asian cultures, are more likely to emphasize relationships with others than to focus primarily on the individual
79
Actor-observer bias
Phenomenon of explaining other people's behaviors are due to internal factors and our own behaviors are due to situational forces
80
Self-serving bias
Tendency of an individual to take credit by making dispositional or internal attributions for positive outcomes but situational or external attributions for negative outcomes
Protects self-esteeem - allows people to feel good about their accomplishments
81
Attribution
A belief about the cause of a result
82
One model of attribution proposes 3 dimensions:
1. Locus of control
(Internal vs external)
2. Stability
(Extent to which the circumstances are changeable)
3. Controllability
(Extent to which the circumstances can be controlled)
83
Just-world hyopthesis
Believe that people get the outcomes they deserve
- People who hold these beliefs tend to blame the people in poverty for their circumstances, ignoring situational and cultural causes of poverty
84
Social norm
A group's expectation of what is appropriate and acceptable behavior for its members
84
Social Role
A pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group
Ex: Student
84
Script
A person's knowledge about the sequence of events expected in a specific setting
85
Philip Zimbardo created the Standford Prison Experiement (1971) that:
- Demonstrated the power of social roles, norms, and scripts
- A mock prision was constructed and participants (male college students) were assigned to play the roles of prisoners and guards
- In a short amount of time, the guards started to harass he prisoner in an increasingly sadistic manner
- Prisoners began to show signs of severe anxiety and hopelessness
86
Attitude
Our evaluation of a person, and idea, or an object
87
3 components of attitude:
1. Affective component - feelings
2. Behavioral component - the effect of the attitude on behavior
3. Cognitive component - belief and knowledge
88
Who created the theory of cognitive dissonance (psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions) ?
Leon Festinger
89
To reduce cognitive dissonance
- Change their behavior (quitting smoking)
- Change their belief through rationalization or denial (suchs as discounting the evidence that smoking is harmful)
- Add a new cognition ("Smoking suppresses appetite so I don't become overweight, which is good for my health")
90
Aronson and Mills Experiment (1959)
College students volunteered to join a group that would regularly discuss the psychology of sex
- 3 conditions: no initiation, easy initiation, difficult initiation
- Students in the difficult initiation condition like the group more than students in other conditions due to the justification of effort
91
Persuasion
Process of changing our attitudes toward something based on some kind of communcation
92
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Petty & Cacioppo (1986)
Central Route:
- logic driven
- uses date and facts
- direct route to persuasion focusing on the quality of information
- works best when audience is analytical and willing to engage in processing of the information
Peripheral Route:
- indirect route
- uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message
- Use characteristics such as positive emotion or celebrity endorsement
- Results in less permanent attitude change
93
Foot-in-the-door-technique
Persuader gets a person to agree to a small favor, only to later request a large favor
94
Conformity
The change in a person's behavior to go along with the group, even if does not agree with the group
95
Asch's Experiment
Used line segments to illustrate the judgment task
96
Asch Effect
The influence of the group majority on an individuals judement
97
Factors that make a person likely to conform?
- The size of the majority
The greater the majority, the more likely an indivdual will conform
- The presence of another dissenter
Causes conformity rates to drop to near zero
- The public/private nature of the responses
Public responses cause more conformity than private
Ex: Voting is private to reduce pressure of conformity
98
Normative social influence
People conform to the group norm to fit in, to feel good, to be accepted by the group
99
Informational social influence
People conform because they believe the group is competent and has the correct information, particularly when the task or situation is ambiguous
100
Obedience
The change of an individual's behavior to comply with a demand by an authority figure
100
The Milgram Obedience Experiment:
- Participants were told to shock "learners" (confederates) for giving a wrong answer
- Participant's believed they were giving the learners shocks, which increased all the way up to 450 volts
- 2/3 (65%) participants continued to administer shocks to an unresponsive learner
101
Groupthink
The modification of the opinions of members of a group to align with what they believe is the group consensus
- Groups often take actions that individuals would not perform outside the group setting because groups make more extreme decisions than individuals do
- Members are less likely to express diverse opinions which can lead to faulty decision making
101
Group Polarization
The strengthening of an original group attitude after the discussion of views within a group
102
Social Facilitation
Occurs when an individual performs better when an audience is watching than when the individual performs the behavior alone
- Usually occurs when people are performing a task for which they are skilled or an easy task
- However, when people are nervous or less skilled, an audience may hinder rather than help
103
Social Loafing
The exertion of less effort by a person working together with a group
- Occurs when individual performance cannot be evaluated separately from the group
- Group performance declines on easy tasks
- However, when a task is difficult, people feel more motivated and believe that their group needs their input to do well on a challenging project
104
Prejudice
A negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based soley on one's membership in a particular social group
105
Stereotype
A specific belief or assumption about individuals based solely on their membership in a group
106
Discrimination
A negative action toward an individual as a result of one's membership in a particular group
107
Racism
Prejudice and discrimination against an individual based on race
Dual attitudes model:
Explicit - conscious and controllable
Implicit - Unconscious and uncontrollable
108
Ageism
Prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their age
109
Homophobia
Prejudice and discrimination of individuals based solely on their sexual orientation
110
Sexism
Prejudice and discrimination of individuals based solely on their sex.
111
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
An expectation held by a person that alters his/her behavior in a way that tends to make it true
112
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)
Disadvantaged students who had teachers that expected them to perform well had higher grades than disadvantaged students whose teachers expected them to do poorly
112
Confirmation bias
Tendency to seek out information that supports our stereotypes and ignore information that is inconsistent with our stereotypes
113
In group
A group that we identify with or see ourselves as belonging to
114
Out-groups
A group that we view as fundamentally different from us
115
In-group bias
Prejudice and discrimination because the out-group is perceived as different and is less preferred than our in-group
116
Forces that promote reconciliation between groups:
- Expression of empathy
- Acknowledgement of past suffering on both sides
- The halt of destructive behaviors
117
Scapegoating
The act of blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal
118
Aggression
Seeking to cause harm or pain to another person
119
Hostile Aggression
Motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain
ex: a bar fight
120
Instrumental aggression
Motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain
- typically displayed by women
Ex: communication that impairs the social standing of another person
121
Frustration Aggression Theory
When humans are prevented from achieving an important goal, they become frustrated and aggressive
122
Kitty Genovese (1964)
- Attacked and killed with a knife outside her apartment building
- Residents in the apartment building heard her scream for help numerous times but did nothing
123
Latanae & Darley - Bystander effect
Phenomenon in which a witness/bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress
123
Diffusion of responsibility
Tendency for no one in a group to help because the reasonability to help is spread throughout the group
124
Prosocial Behavior
Voluntary behavior with the intent to help other people
125
Altruism
People's desire to help others even if the costs outweigh the benefits of helping
126
Empathy
The capacity to understand another person's perspective, to feel what he/she feels
127
Proximity
The people with whom you have the most contact
128
Similarity
People who are similar to us in background, attitudes, and lifestyle
129
Homophily
The tendency for people to form social networks with others who are similar
130
Important components of relationships
- Reciprocity
The give and take in relationships. We contribute to relationships, but expect to recieve benefits in return
- Self Disclosure
The sharing of personal information (Leads to more intimate connections)
131
Universally Attractive Features
- Women:
physical: large eyes, high cheekbones, a narrow jaw line, a slender build, a lower waist-to-hip ration
social: warmth, affection, and social skills
- Men:
physical: tall, having broad shoulders, and a narrow waist
social: achievement, leadership, qualities, and job skills
132
Matching hyposthesis
People tend to pick someone they view as their equal in physical attractiveness and social desirability
133
Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love
(Seven types of love can be describe from combinations of 3 components):
1. Intimacy - sharing of details and intimate thoughts and emotions
2. Passion - physical attraction
3. Commitment - standing by the person
134
Social Exchange Theory
Acting like naïve economists, people may keep track of the costs and benefits of forming and maintain a relationship
135
Psychopathology
The study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (causes), and treatment
136
Psychological disorder
A condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
- Behaviors, thoughts, and inner experiences that are atypical, dysfunctional, or dangerous are sigs of psychological disorders
- However, there is no single definition of psychological abnormality or normality
137
Cultural Expectations
Violating cultural expectations is not enough by itself to identify a psychological disorder
- Hallucinations is a violation of cultural expectations in Western Societies. People who report hallucinations are likely to be labeled with a psychological disorder
- in some other cultures, certain types of hallucinations are highly value
138
Harmful Dysfunction
Wakefield (1992)
Proposed a more influential concept in which he defines psychological disorders as a harmful dysfunction
139
Dysfunction
When an internal mechanism (ex: cognition, perception, learning) breaks down and cannot perform its normal function
140
How can a dysfunction be classified as a disorder?
It must be harmful - leads to negative consequences for the individual or for others, as judged by the standards of the individual's culture
141
Psychological disorder
- Significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
Outside of cultural norms
- The disturbances reflect some kind of biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction
- The disturbances lead to significant distress or disability in one's life
Ex: difficulty performing appropriate and expected roles
142
Diagnosis
Appropriately identifying and labeling a set of defined symptoms
143
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
- Published by the American Psychiatric Association
- First published in 1952 and gone under numerous revisions
- DSM-5 is the classification system used by most mental health professionals
- Categorizes and describes each disorder
144
Diagnostic features
Overview of the disorder
145
Diagnostic criteria
Specific symptoms required for diagnosis
146
Prevalence
Percent of population thought to be afflicted
147
Risk Factors
Provides information about comorbidity (The co-occurrence of two disorders)
148
What 2 disorders frequently occur in the same person?
- Obsessive-compulsive disorder
- Major depressive disorder
149
International Classification of Diseases
Published by the World Health Organization
- Used to examine general health of populations and monitor prevalence of diseases/health problems internationally
- Worldwide, it is more frequently used for clinical diagnosis, whereas the DSM is more valued for research
- DSM includes more explicitly disorder criteria as well as extensive explanatory text
- DSM is the classification system used among U>S mental health professionals
150
Supernatural perspective
Psychological disorders attributed to a force beyond scientific understanding
- Practitioners of black magic (sorcery)
- Possessed by spirits
- Witchcraft
Treatments included torture, beatings, and exorcism
151
Dancing Mania
Epidemic in Western Europe (11th-17th centuries) in which groups of people would suddenly begin to dance with wild abandon
- Some would dance for days/weeks, screaming of terrible visions
152
Biological Perspectives
View psychological disorders as linked to biological phenomena
- genetic factors, chemical imbalances and brain abnormalities
Supported by evidence that most psychological disorders have a genetic component
- A person's risk of developing schizophrenia increases if a relative has schizophrenia
153
Psychosocial Perspective
- Emphasizes the importance of learning, stress, faulty, and self-defeating thinking patterns, and environmental factors
- Views the cause of psychological disorders as a combination of biological and psychosocial factors
154
Diathesis-Stress Model:
Integrates biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood of a disorder
Diatheses + Stress = Development of a disorder
155
Fear
An instantaneous reaction to an imminent threat
156
Anxiety
Apprehension, avoidance, and cautiousness regarding a potential threat, danger, or other negative content
157
Anxiety Disorders
Characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances in behavior
- Effects approximately 25-30% of the U.S population
- More common in women
- Most frequently occurring class of mental disorders
158
Specific Phobias
Involves excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation
- People may realize their fear/anxiety is irrational but still go to great lengths to avoid the stimulus
159
Prevalence
Affects 12.5% of the U.S population at some point in their lifetime
160
Common phobias
Acrophobia - heights
Aerophobia - flying
Arachnophobia - spiders
Claustrophobia - enclosed spaces
161
Agoraphobia
- Listed as a separate anxiety disorder
- Characterized by intense fear, anxiety, and avoidance of situations in which it might be difficult to escape or recieve help if one experiences a pains attack
- These situations include public transportation, crowds, being outside the home alone
162
Acquisition of Phobias through learning
Rachman (1977): 3 Major Learning Pathways
1. Classical conditioning
2. Vicarious Learning
3. Verbal transmission of information
163
Social Anxiety Disorder
The persistent fear or anxiety and avoidance of social situations in which the person could potentially be evaluated negatively by others, leading to serious impairments in life
- 12% experience it
- Comorbidity with alcohol use
Risk factors: Fears of social situations possibly develop through conditioning
164
Behavioral Inhibition
A consistent tendency to show fear and restraint when presented with unfamiliar people or situations
165
Panic disorder
Recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, along with at least 1 month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks, worry over the consequences of the attacks, or self-defeating changes in behavior related to the attacks
- Comorbidity with anxiety disorders or major depressive disorder
166
Panic attack
A period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes
167
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
A relatively continous state of excessive, uncontrollable, and pointless worry, and apprehension
Diagnosis criteria:
- Diffuse worrying and apprehensions is not part of another disorder
- Symptoms occur more days than not for at least 6 months
- Restlessness, difficulutre concentrating, being easily fatigued, muscle tension, irritability, and sleep difficulties
Prevalence:
- Affects 5.7% of U.S population
- Females are 2x as likely to experience the disorder
Comorbidity with mood disorders and other anxiety disorders
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Obsessions
Persistent, unintentional, and unwanted thoughts and urges that are highly intrusive, unpleasant, and distressing
Common obsessions
- Concerns about germs and contamination
- Doubts
- Order and symmetry
- Aggressive or lustful urges
Prevalence: 2.3% of population
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Compulsions
repetitive and ritualistic acts, typically carried out primarily as a means to minimize the distress that obsessions trigger or to reduce the likelihood of a feared event
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Body Dysmorhphic disorder
Involves a preoccupatioin with a perceived flaw in the individuals physical appearance that is either nonexistent or barely noticeable to other people
- Causes person to think they are unattractive or deformed
Prevalence:
2.4% of adults
Slightly higher rates in women
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Hoarding Disorder
Involves great difficulty in discarding possessions, regardless of how valueless/useless they are, usually resulting in an accumulation of items that clutter living or work areas
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OCD causes
- Genetics
- Conditioning Theories
- Brain Anatomy
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OCD Circuit
Several interconnected regions that influence perceived emotional value of stimuli and selections of behavioral and cognitive responses
174
Orbitofrontal cortex
Involved in learning and decision making
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PTSD
Individual was exposed to, witnessed, or experienced the details of a traumatic experience
Symptoms:
- Intrusive and distressing memories of event
- Flashbacks
- Avoidance of stimuli connected to the event
- Persistently negative emotional states
- Feelings of detachment from others
Irritability.
* Proneness toward outbursts.
* Exaggerated startle response.
Prevalence - Experienced by approximately 7% of the U.S. population in their lifetime.
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PTSD Risk Factors
Risk Factors
* Trauma experience.
* Those involving harm by others carry greater risk than those that do not.
* Lack of immediate social support.
* Social Support (comfort, advice, and assistance from relatives, friends, and
neighbors) can reduce the risk of developing PTSD.
* Subsequent life stress.
* Female gender.
* Low socioeconomic status.
* Low intelligence.
* Personal history of mental disorders.
* History of childhood adversity.
* Family history of mental disorders.
* Personality characteristics – neuroticism and somatization (tendency to experience
physical symptoms when one encounters stress).
* Possession of one or two short versions of a gene that regulates serotonin
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Mood Disorders
Characterized by massive disruptions in mood and emotions that can cause a distorted
out look on life, and impair ability to function.
- Depressive Disorders
- Bipolar and Related Disorders
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Depression
intense and persistent sadness
179
Mania
(extreme elation and agitation) is the main feature
180
Manic episode
“a distinct period of
abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased activity or energy lasting at
least one week.” (APA, 2013).
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Major Depressive Disorder
Diagnosis Criteria
* “Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day” (APA, 2013).
* Loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities.
* At least 5 symptoms for at least a two-week period.
* Symptoms cause significant distress or impair normal functioning and are not caused by
substances or a medical condition.
Major depressive disorder is episodic (symptoms are usually present at their full magnitude
for a certain period of time and then gradually diminish).
Symptoms
* Weight loss or weight gain/increased or decreased appetite.
* Difficulty falling asleep or too much sleep.
* Psychomotor agitation or psychomotor retardation.
* Fatigue/loss of energy.
* Feelings of worthlessness or guilt.
* Difficulty concentrating, indecisiveness.
* Suicidal ideation – thoughts of death, thinking about/planning suicide, suicide attempt.
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Major Depressive Disorder pt. 2
Prevalence
* Affects around 6.6% of the U.S. population each year and 16.9% of the U.S. population
in their lifetime.
* More common among women than men.
Comorbidity anxiety disorders and substance abuse disorders.
Risk Factors
* Unemployment.
* Low income.
* Living in urban areas.
* Being separated, divorced, or widowed.
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Subtypes of Depression
- Seasonal pattern
- Peripartum onset (postpartum depression)
- Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia) – -
- Chronically sad but do not meet all the criteria for major depression.
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Seasonal pattern
– applies to situations in which a person experiences the symptoms of
major depressive disorder only during a particular time of year
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Peripartum onset (postpartum depression)
– major depression during pregnancy or in
the four weeks following the birth.
186
Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)
– depressed moods most of the day nearly
every day for at least two years, as well as at least two of the other symptoms of major
depression.
187
Bipolar Disorder
Involves mood states that fluctuate between depression and mania.
Symptoms of Mania
* Excessively talkative.
* Excessively irritable.
* Exhibit flight of ideas – talk loudly and rapidly, abruptly switching from one topic to
another.
* Easily distracted.
* Exhibit grandiosity – inflated but unjustified self-esteem and self-confidence.
* Show little need for sleep.
* Take on several tasks at once.
* Engage in reckless behaviors.
Prevalence
* Onset is typically before the age of 25.
* Affects 1 out of 100 people in the U.S. in their lifetime.
* 36% of these individuals attempt suicide.
Comorbidity - anxiety disorder and substance abuse disorder
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Biological Basis of Mood disorders
Mood disorders often involve
imbalances in neurotransmitters.
* Particularly serotonin and
norepinephrine.
These neurotransmitters are involved in
bodily functions that are disrupted in mood disorders
189
Medications for depression
– usually
increase serotonin and norepinephrine
activity.
190
Medication for bipolar
Lithium, which
blocks norepinephrine activity at the
synapse.
191
Amygdala
– important in assessing the emotional significance of stimuli and
experiencing emotions.
* Depressed individuals react to negative emotional stimuli, such as sad faces,
with greater amygdala activation than do non-depressed individuals.
* More prone to react emotionally to negative stimuli.
192
Prefrontal cortex
– important in
regulating and controlling emotions.
* Decreased activation in
depressed individuals which
may inhibit its ability to
override negative emotions.
* Greater difficulty controlling
emotional reactions
193
Cognitive Theories of Depression
Cognitive theories suggest that depression is triggered by negative thoughts,
interpretations, self-evaluations, and expectations.
Diathesis-Stress model: cognitive vulnerability + stressful life events → depression
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Aaron Beck (1960's)
Theorized that depression-prone people possess mental predispositions to think about
most things in a negative way (depressive schemas).
* May develop in childhood in response to adverse experiences.
* Dormant until activated by stressful or negative life events.
* Prompt dysfunctional and pessimistic thoughts about the self, world, and the future.
* Maintained by cognitive biases which lead us to focus on negative aspects of experiences, interpret things negatively, and block positive memories.
Supported by research.
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Depressive schemas
– contain themes of loss, failure, rejection, worthlessness, and
inadequacy.
196
Hopelessness Theory
Specific negative thinking style → sense of hopelessness → depression
- Negative thinking
- Hoplessness
197
Negative thinking
– refers to a tendency to perceive negative life events as having
stable (”It’s never going to change”) and global (“It’s going to affect my whole life”) causes
198
Hopelessness
- expectation that unpleasant outcomes will occur or desired outcomes
will not occur, and there is nothing one can do to prevent such outcomes (seen as the
primary cause of depression).
199
Rumination
– repetitive and passive focus on the fact that one is depressed and dwelling
on depressed symptoms, rather than distracting one’s self from the symptoms or
attempting to address them in an active, problem-solving manner.
Distressed mood → Rumination → increased risk and duration of mood
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SUICIDE
Statistics
* 90% of those who complete suicides have a diagnosis of at least one mental disorder
(most frequently mood disorders).
* 10th leading cause of death for all ages in 2010 (an average of 105 each day).
* 4 times higher among males (79% of all suicides) than females.
* Males most commonly use fire arms, females most commonly use poison.
Risk Factors
* Substance abuse problems (10 times greater in individuals with alcohol dependence).
* Previous suicide attempts.
* Access to lethal means in which to act (e.g., firearm in the home)
. * Precursors – withdrawal from social relationships, feeling like a burden, engaging in
reckless and risk-taking behaviors.
* Sense of entrapment (feeling unable to escape feelings or external circumstances).
* Cyberbullying.
* Suicide of a family member.
* Serotonin dysfunction.
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SCHIZOPHRENIA: SYMPTOMS
- Hallucinations
- Delusions
- Disorganized thinking
- Disorganized or -abnormal motor behavior
- Disorganized or abnormal motor behavior
- Negative symptoms
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Hallucinations
perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external stimulation.
(Auditory hallucinations are most common).
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Delusions
– beliefs that are contrary to reality.
* Paranoid delusions – belief that other people or agencies are plotting to harm them.
* Grandiose delusions – belief that one holds special power, unique knowledge, or is
extremely important.
* Somatic delusions – belief that something highly abnormal is happening to one’s body.
* Thought withdrawal/insertion.
204
Disorganized thinking
– disjointed and incoherent thought processes.
205
Disorganized or abnormal motor behavior
– unusual behaviors/movements.
206
Catatonic behaviors
– decreased reactivity to the environment
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Negative Symptoms
- decreases and absences in certain behaviors, emotions, drives.
* Avolition – lack of motivation to engage in self-initiated and meaningful activity.
* Alogia – reduced speech output.
* Asociality – social withdrawal.
* Anhedonia – inability to experience pleasure
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Dopamine hypothesis
– an overabundance of dopamine or too many dopamine
receptors are responsible for the onset and maintenance of schizophrenia.
* Drugs that increase dopamine levels can produce schizophrenia-like symptoms.
* Medications that block dopamine activity reduce the symptoms.
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SCHIZOPHRENIA
CAUSES
Prevalence – Affects 1% of the population.
Genetics
* Risk is 6 times greater if one parent has schizophrenia (even if adopted).
Neurotransmitters
* High levels of dopamine in the limbic system → hallucinations and delusions.
* Low levels of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex → negative symptoms.
Brain Anatomy
* Enlarged ventricles.
* Reduced gray matter in the frontal lobes.
* Many show less frontal lobe activity when performing cognitive tasks.
Events During Pregnancy
* Obstetric complications during birth.
* Mother’s exposure to influenza during the first trimester. * Mother’s emotional stress.
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DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
Characterized by an individual becoming split off, or dissociated, from their core sense of
self - Memory and identity become disturbed.
- Dissociative Amnesia
- Depersonalization/
Derealization Disorder
- Depersonalization
- * Derealization
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Dissociative Identity Disorder (formerly multiple personality disorder)
- Individual exhibits
two or more separate personalities or identities.
* Involves memory gaps for the time during which another identity is in charge.
* Individuals tend to report a history of childhood trauma - Adoption of multiple
personalities may serve as a psychologically important coping mechanism for threat and
danger.
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Dissociative Amnesia -
Inability to recall important personal information.
* Usually follows a stressful or traumatic experience.
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Dissociative fugue
– individual suddenly wanders away from home, experiences
confusion about their identity, and in some cases may adopt a new identity.
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Depersonalization/
Derealization Disorder
- Characterized by recurring episodes of
depersonalization, derealization, or both
. * Depersonalization – feelings of “unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with,
one’s whole self or from aspects of the self” (APA 2013).
* Derealization – a sense of ”unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, the world,
be it individuals, inanimate objects, or all surroundings” (APA, 2013).
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Personality Disorders
Characterized by a pervasive and inflexible personality style that differs markedly from the
expectations of the individuals culture and causes distress or impairment.
* Begins in adolescence or early adulthood.
Prevalence
* Slightly over 9% of the U.S. population suffers from a personality disorder.
* Avoidant and schizoid personality disorders are most frequent.
* Antisocial and borderline personality disorder are most problematic.
Cluster A
1. Paranoid personality disorder
2. Schizoid personality disorder
3. Schizotypal personality disorder
Cluster B
4. Antisocial personality disorder
5. Histrionic personality disorder
6. Narcissistic personality disorder
7. Borderline personality disorder
Cluster C
8. Avoidant personality disorder
9. Dependent personality disorder
10. Obsessive-compulsive personality
disorder
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BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER
Characterized by instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and mood, as well as
marked impulsivity.
Symptoms
* Cannot tolerate the thought of being alone – will make frantic efforts to avoid
abandonment or separation.
* Relationships are intense and unstable.
* Unstable view of self – might suddenly display a shift in personal attitudes, interests,
career plans, and choice of friends.
* May be highly impulsive and may engage in reckless and self-destructive behaviors.
* May sometimes show intense and inappropriate anger.
* Can be moody, sarcastic, bitter and verbally abusive.
Prevalence – afflicts 1.4% of the U.S. population.
Comorbidity – anxiety, mood, and substance use disorders.
Causes
* Core personality traits such as impulsivity and emotional instability show a high degree
of heritability.
* Many individuals report childhood abuse
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ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER
Characterized by complete lack of regard for
other people’s rights or feelings.
Symptoms
* Repeatedly performing illegal acts.
* Lying to or conning others.
* Impulsivity and recklessness.
* Irritability and aggressiveness.
* Failure to act in responsible ways.
* Lack of remorse.
* Overinflated sense of self.
* Superficial charm.
* Lack ability to empathize.
Diagnosis requires individual to be at least 18
years old.
Prevalence
* Observed in 3.6% of the population.
* More common in males.
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ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER CAUSES
Genetics
Personality and temperament dimensions related to this disorder (fearlessness, impulsive
antisociality, and callousness) have a genetic influence.
Adoption studies suggest antisocial behavior is determined by the interaction of genetic
factors and adverse environmental circumstances.
Emotional Deficits
Individuals with antisocial personality disorder fail to show fear in response to environment
cues that signal punishment, pain, or noxious stimulation.
* Show less skin conductance which may indicate emotional deficits.
Brain Anatomy
Research has revealed:
* Less activation in brain regions involved in the experience of empathy and feeling
concerned for others.
* Greater activation in a brain area involved in self-awareness, cognitive function and
interpersonal experience.
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Neurodevelopmental disorders
– involve developmental problems in personal, social,
academic, and intellectual functioning.
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ADHD
- constant pattern of inattention and/or hyperactive and impulsive behavior that
interferes with normal functioning.
Symptoms
Inattention:
* Difficulty sustaining attention.
* Failure to follow instructions.
* Disorganization.
* Lack of attention to detail.
* Easily distracted and forgetful
Hyperactivity:
* Excessive movement.
* Interrupting and intruding on others.
* Blurting out responses before questions
have been completed.
* Difficulty waiting ones turn
Prevalence
* Occurs in about 5% of children.
* Boys are 3 times more likely to have ADHD than girls.
Life Problems
* Low educational attainment, low socioeconomic status, unemployment, low wages,
substance abuse problems, and relationship problems.
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ADHD CAUSES
Genetics
Inattention – 71% heritable.
Hyperactivity – 73% heritable.
Neurotransmitters
Dopamine:
* Genes involved are thought to include at least two that are important in the regulation of
dopamine.
* Individuals with ADHD show less dopamine activity in key brain regions (especially
those associated with motivation and reward.
* Medications have stimulant qualities and elevate dopamine activity.
Brain Anatomy
* Studies show smaller frontal lobe volume and less activation when performing mental
tasks.
* Frontal lobe inhibits behavior – may explain hyperactive, uncontrolled behavior of
ADHD.
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AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
Symptoms
* Deficits in social interaction (e.g., do not make eye contact, turn head away when
spoken to, prefer playing alone).
* Deficits in communication (e.g., one word responses, difficulty maintaining
conversation, echoed speech, and problems using and understanding nonverbal cues).
* Repetitive patterns of behavior or interests.
Prevalence
* Affects approximately 1 in 88 children in the U.S. * 5 times more common in boys.
Causes
Genetics:
* Identical twins – 60%-90% concordance rates.
* Fraternal twins – 5%-10% concordance rates.
* Genes involved are those important in the formation of synaptic circuits that facilitate
communication between different areas of the brain.
Environment:
* Factors that contribute to new mutations (e.g. pollutants)
223
TREATMENT IN THE PAST
Throughout most of history, mental illness was believed to be caused by supernatural
forces such as witchcraft or demonic possession. People with mental illnesses at this time
were often subjected to cruelty and poor treatment.
Treatments aimed at supernatural forces:
* Exorcism – involving incantations and prayers said over the individual’s
body by a priest/religious figure.
* Trephining – a hole was made in the skull to release spirits from the
body. This often lead to death.
* Execution or imprisonment - many mentally ill people were burnt at the
stake after being accused of witchcraft.
224
18TH CENTURY Treatment
This painting by Francisco Goya, called The Madhouse, depicts a mental asylum and its
inhabitants in the early 1800s. It portrays those with psychological disorders as victims.
By the 18th century, people exhibiting unusual behavior began to be institutionalized
Asylums
* Focus was ostracizing them from society rather than treatment.
* Individuals often kept in windowless dungeons, chained to beds, little to no contact with
caregivers.
225
Asylums
– the first institutions created for the specific purpose of housing people with
psychological disorders.
226
Dorothea Dix
* A social reformer who became an advocate for
the indigent insane.
* Investigated the state of care for the mentally
ill and poor.
* Discovered an underfunded and unregulated
system that perpetuated abuse of the mentally
ill.
* Instrumental in creating the first American
mental asylum - by relentlessly lobbying state
legislatures and Congress to set up and fund
such institutions.
227
19th century
American Asylums
* Usually filthy.
* Offered little treatment.
* Individuals were often institutionalized for decades.
Treatment:
* Submersion into cold baths for long periods of time.
* Electroshock treatment (now called electroconvulsive therapy) – involves a brief
application of electric stimulus to produce a generalized seizure.
Conditions such us these were common until well into the 20th century.
228
20TH CENTURY
1954 - antipsychotic medications were introduced.
* Proved successful in treating symptoms of psychosis.
* Psychosis was a common diagnosis, evidenced by symptoms such as hallucinations
and delusions, indicating a loss of contact with reality.
1975 - Mental Retardation Facilities & Community Mental Health Centers Construction Act
* Provided federal support and funding for community mental health centers.
* Started the process of deinstitutionalization.
Deinstitutionalization – the closing of large asylums, by providing for people to stay in
their communities and be treated locally
* Patients were released but the new system was not set up effectively.
* Centers were underfunded, staff untrained to handle severe mental illnesses.
* Lead to an increase in homelessness.
229
Types of Treatment
Psychodynamic
psychotherapy
Play therapy
Behavior therapy
Cognitive therapy
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
Humanistic therapy
230
Psychoanalysis
* First form of psychotherapy, developed by Sigmund Freud in the early 20th century.
* Aimed to help uncover repressed feelings.
Techniques:
Free association –
* Freud theorized that the ego would try to block unacceptable urges or painful conflicts
during free association causing the patient to demonstrate resistance.
Dream analysis
Transference
231
Free association
– patient relaxes and then says whatever comes to mind at the moment.
232
Dream analysis
– therapist interprets the underlying meaning of dreams.
233
Transference
– patient transfers all the positive or negative emotions associated with their
other relationships to the psychoanalyst
234
Psychodynamic psychotherapy
- Talk therapy based on belief that the unconscious and
childhood conflicts impact behavior.
235
PSYCHOANALYSIS
This is the famous couch in Freud’s consulting room. Patients were instructed to lie
comfortably on the couch and to face away from Freud in order to feel less inhibited and to
help them focus
236
PLAY THERAPY
Psychoanalytical therapy wherein interaction with toys is used instead of talk; used in child
therapy.
* Used to help clients prevent/resolve psychosocial difficulties & achieve optimal growth.
Techniques:
* Toys, such as dolls, stuffed animals, and sandbox figurines are used to help children
play out their hopes, fantasies and traumas.
* Sandplay or sandtray therapy
* Therapist observes how child interacts with
toys in order to understand the roots of the
child’s disturbed behavior. Can be used to
make a diagnosis.
* Nondirective play therapy .
* Directive play therapy
237
Sandplay or sandtray therapy
- children can set up a three dimensional world using
various figures and objects that correspond to their inner state (Kalff, 1991).
(credit: Kristina Walter)
238
Nondirective play therapy
– children are
encouraged to work through problems by
playing freely while therapist observes.
239
Directive play therapy
– therapist provides
structure/guidance by suggesting topics,
asking questions, and playing with the child
240
BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES
Psychotropic medications – medications used to treat psychological
disorders.
* Treat the symptoms of psychological disorders but do not cure the disorder.
Antipsychotics – treat positive psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, and
paranoia by blocking dopamine.
Atypical antipsychotics – treat the negative symptoms of schizophrenia such as
withdrawal and apathy, by targeting both dopamine and serotonin receptors.
* Antipsychotics and atypical antipsychotics both treat schizophrenia and other types of
severe thought disorders.
Anti-depressants – alter levels of serotonin and norepinephrine.
* Depression and anxiety.
Anti-anxiety agents – depress central nervous system activation.
* Anxiety, OCD, PTSD, panic disorder and social phobia.
Mood stabilizers – treat episodes of mania as well as depression (Bipolar disorder).
Stimulants – improve ability to focus on a task and maintain attention (ADHD).
Electroconvulsive therapy – induces seizures to help alleviate severe depression.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation – magnetic fields stimulate nerve cells to improve
depression symptom
241
HUMANISTIC THERAPY
* Focuses on helping people achieve their potential.
* Goal is to increases self-awareness and acceptance through focus on conscious
thoughts.
Rogerian/Client-centered Therapy
* Developed by Carl Rogers.
* Emphasized the importance of the person taking control of his own life to overcome
life’s challenges.
* Non-directive therapy – therapist does not give advice or provide interpretations but
helps client identify conflicts and understand feelings.
Techniques:
* Active listening – therapist acknowledges, restates, and clarifies what the client
expresses.
* Unconditional positive regard – therapist does not judge clients and simply accepts
them for who they are.
* Genuineness, empathy, and acceptance towards clients – Rogers felt that
therapists should demonstrate these because it helps the client become more accepting
of themselves, which results in personal growth.
