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Cell Biology > Exam 4 Cell Bio > Flashcards

Exam 4 Cell Bio Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

sugars

A

A substance made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with the general formula (CH2O)n. A carbohydrate or saccharide. The “sugar” of everyday use is sucrose, a sweet-tasting disaccharide made of glucose and fructose

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2
Q

monosaccharides

A

any of the class of sugars (e.g., glucose) that cannot be hydrolyzed to give a simpler sugar

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3
Q

disaccharides

A

any of a class of sugars whose molecules contain two monosaccharide residues

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4
Q

oligosaccharides

A

a carbohydrate whose molecules are composed of a relatively small number of monosaccharide units

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5
Q

D-form molecules

A

a specific configuration of a chiral molecule, indicating that when viewed in a standard projection (like a Fischer projection), the functional group on the chiral carbon furthest from the molecule’s reference point is positioned on the right side

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6
Q

L-form molecules

A

a specific spatial arrangement of atoms within a molecule, particularly in the context of organic chemistry, where it indicates one of two mirror-image enantiomers, with the “L” signifying the “left-handed” configuration

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7
Q

Optical isomers

A

each of two or more forms of a compound which have the same structure but are mirror images of each other and typically differ in optical activity

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8
Q

Carbohydrates

A

any of a large group of organic compounds that includes sugars, starch, and cellulose, containing hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and used as structural materials and for energy storage within living tissues

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9
Q

glycosidic bonds

A

Monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds to form larger carbohydrates

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10
Q

polysaccharides

A

a carbohydrate (e.g. starch, cellulose, or glycogen) whose molecules consist of a number of sugar molecules bonded together

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11
Q

monomers

A

a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer

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12
Q

condensation reaction

A

a reaction in which two molecules combine to form a larger molecule, producing a small molecule such as H2O as a byproduct

Energetically unfavorable

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13
Q

hydrolysis reaction

A

any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water breaks one or more chemical bonds

energetically favorable

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14
Q

cellulose

A

an insoluble substance which is the main constituent of plant cell walls and of vegetable fibers such as cotton. It is a polysaccharide consisting of chains of glucose monomers

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15
Q

chitin

A

a fibrous substance consisting of polysaccharides and forming the major constituent in the exoskeleton of arthropods and the cell walls of fungi

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16
Q

glycoproteins

A

a protein with sugar molecules attached to it

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17
Q

fatty acid

A

Molecule that consists of a carboxylic acid attached to a long hydrocarbon chain. Used as a major source of energy during metabolism and as a starting point for the synthesis of phospholipids

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18
Q

amphipathic

A

having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts

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19
Q

alpha linkages

A

formed when the OH group on the carbon-1 of the first glucose is below the ring plane

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20
Q

beta linkages

A

formed when the OH group on the carbon-1 is above the ring plane

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21
Q

glycogen

A

a substance made of up many connected glucose molecules deposited in bodily tissues that act as a store of carbohydrates. It is a polysaccharide which forms glucose on hydrolysis

Branched polymer composed exclusively of glucose units used to store energy in animal cells. Granules of this material are especially abundant in liver and muscle cells

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22
Q

glycogen phosphorylase

A

an enzyme that breaks down glycogen into glucose that exists in inactive and active forms, with its activation regulated by various hormones and signaling molecules

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23
Q

glycogen synthase

A

an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of glucose into glycogen, a storage form of glucose

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24
Q

pectin

A

a soluble gelatinous polysaccharide that is present in ripe fruits

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25
Q

primary cell wall

A

the cellulose-containing layer laid down by cells that are dividing and growing

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26
Q

secondary cell wall

A

a structure found in many plant cells, located between the primary cell wall and the plasma membrane which provides mechanical support

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27
Q

cellulose microfibrils

A

elongated structures in plant cell walls composed of cellulose chains arranged in a highly organized, crystalline fashion

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28
Q

lignin

A

a complex organic polymer deposited in the cell walls of many plants, making them rigid and woody

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29
Q

connective tissues

A

Tissue that supports, protects, and gives structure to other tissues and organs in the body

Also stores fat, helps move nutrients and other substances between tissues and organs, and helps repair damaged tissue

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30
Q

enzymes

A

a protein that catalyzes a specific chemical reaction

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31
Q

catalysis

A

Substance that accelerates a chemical reaction by lowering its activation energy; enzymes perform this role in cells.

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32
Q

metabolism

A

The sum total of the chemical reactions that take place in the cells of a living organism

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33
Q

catabolism

A

Set of enzyme-catalyzed reactions by which complex molecules are degraded to simpler ones with release of energy; intermediates in these reactions are sometimes called catabolites

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34
Q

anabolic

A

Set of metabolic pathways by which large molecules are made from smaller ones

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35
Q

biosynthesis

A

An enzyme-catalyzed process by which complex molecules are formed from simpler substances by living cells; also called anabolism.

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36
Q

oxidation

A

Removal of electrons from an atom, as occurs during the addition of oxygen to a carbon atom or when a hydrogen is removed from a carbon atom; can also refer to a partial shift of electrons between atoms linked by a covalent bond.

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37
Q

reduction

A

Addition of electrons to an atom, as occurs during the addition of hydrogen to a carbon atom or the removal of oxygen from it; can also refer to a partial shift of electrons between atoms linked by a covalent bond.

38
Q

free energy, G

A

Energy that can be harnessed to do work, such as driving a chemical reaction.

39
Q

free-energy change, ΔG

A

in a chemical reaction, the difference in free energy between reactant and product molecules. A large negative value of ΔG indicates that the reaction has a strong tendency to occur. (See also standard free-energy change)

40
Q

activation energy

A

The energy that must be acquired by a molecule to undergo a chemical reaction.

41
Q

substrates

A

A molecule on which an enzyme acts to catalyze a chemical reaction.

42
Q

equilibrium

A

State in which the forward and reverse rates of a chemical reaction are equal so that no net chemical change occurs.

43
Q

ATP

A

Activated carrier that serves as the principal carrier of energy in cells; a nucleoside triphosphate composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups. (See Figure 2–26.)

44
Q

ADP

A

Nucleoside diphosphate produced by hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate of ATP

45
Q

coupled reaction

A

Linked pair of chemical reactions in which free energy released by one reaction serves to drive the other reaction.

ATP to ADP is an exergonic reaction that can provide energy for endergonic reactions

46
Q

hydrolysis reactions

A

a reaction in which one molecule breaks apart to form multiple smaller molecules

47
Q

activated carrier

A

A small molecule that stores energy or chemical groups in covalent bonds that can be donated to many different metabolic reactions. Examples include ATP, acetyl CoA, and NADH.

48
Q

NADH

A

Activated carrier of electrons that is widely used in the energy-producing breakdown of sugar molecules

49
Q

NADPH

A

Activated carrier closely related to NADH and used as an electron donor in biosynthetic pathways. In the process it is oxidized to NADP+.

50
Q

acetyl CoA

A

Activated carrier that donates the carbon atoms in its readily transferable acetyl group to many metabolic reactions, including the citric acid cycle and fatty acid biosynthesis; the acetyl group is linked to coenzyme A (CoA) by a thioester bond that releases a large amount of energy when hydrolyzed.

51
Q

NAD+

A

A molecule that accepts a hydride ion (H–) from a donor molecule, thereby producing the activated carrier NADH. Widely used in the energy-producing breakdown of sugar molecules. (See Figure 3–34.)

52
Q

NADP+

A

Molecule that accepts a hydride ion (H–) from a donor molecule, thereby producing the activated carrier NADPH; widely used as an electron donor in biosynthetic pathways.

53
Q

diffusion

A

Process by which molecules and small particles move from one location to another by random, thermally driven motion

54
Q

cell respiration

A

Process by which cells harvest the energy stored in food molecules; usually accompanied by the uptake of O2 and the release of CO2.

three main stages:
glycolysis, the Krebs cycle/citric acid cycle, the electron transport chain

55
Q

entropy

A

Thermodynamic quantity that measures the degree of disorder in a system.

56
Q

photosynthesis

A

The process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use the energy of sunlight to drive the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.

57
Q

thermodynamics

A

Branch of science that studies the relationship between work, heat, and other forms of energy.

58
Q

equilibrium constant, K

A

For a reversible chemical reaction, the ratio of substrate to product when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal

59
Q

standard free-energy change, ΔG°

A

The free-energy change measured at a defined concentration, temperature, and pressure.

60
Q

lipid

A

An organic molecule that is insoluble in water but dissolves readily in nonpolar organic solvents; typically contains long hydrocarbon chains or multiple rings. One class, the phospholipids, forms the structural basis for biological membranes

61
Q

covalent bond

A

interatomic linkage that results from the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms

62
Q

hydrogen bond

A

a weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other

63
Q

ionic bond

A

type of linkage formed from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions in a chemical compound

64
Q

macromolecule

A

a molecule containing a very large number of atoms, such as a protein, nucleic acid, or synthetic polymer

65
Q

noncovalent bond

A

chemical association that does not involve sharing electrons; singularly weak but can be a sum total strong

Ex: hydrogen bonds, Van der Waals attractions

66
Q

substrate-level phosphorylation

A

Process by which ATP is formed by the transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP; substrates that participate in this form of ATP synthesis must carry a phosphate group that is linked via a “high-energy” covalent bond.

67
Q

oxidative phosphorylation

A

Membrane-based process in bacteria and mitochondria in which ATP formation is driven by the transfer of electrons derived from food molecules to molecular oxygen.

68
Q

glycolysis (Embden–Meyerhof pathway)

A

Series of enzyme-catalyzed oxidation reactions in which sugars are partially degraded and their energy is captured by the activated carriers ATP and NADH. (Literally, “sugar splitting.”)

69
Q

pyruvate

A

Three-carbon metabolite that is the end product of the glycolytic breakdown of glucose; provides a crucial link to the citric acid cycle and many biosynthetic pathways.

70
Q

acetyl CoA

A

Activated carrier that donates the carbon atoms in its readily transferable acetyl group to many metabolic reactions, including the citric acid cycle and fatty acid biosynthesis; the acetyl group is linked to coenzyme A (CoA) by a thioester bond that releases a large amount of energy when hydrolyzed.

71
Q

electron-transport chain

A

A series of membrane-embedded electron carrier molecules that facilitate the movement of electrons from a higher to a lower energy level, as in oxidative phosphorylation and photosynthesis.

72
Q

fermentations

A

The breakdown of organic molecules without the involvement of molecular oxygen. This form of oxidation yields less energy than aerobic cell respiration.

73
Q

fats

A

Type of lipid used by living cells to store metabolic energy. Mainly composed of triacylglycerols

74
Q

control mechanisms

A
75
Q

Three stages of catabolism

A
  1. Breakdown of large food molecules to simple subunits
  2. Glycolysis: Breakdown of simple subunits to acetyl CoA (limited ATP and NADH)
  3. Complete oxidation of acetyl CoA to CO2 and H2O (plentiful of ATP produced)
76
Q

Starch

A

Polysaccharide composed exclusively of glucose units, used as an energy store in plant cells

77
Q

feedback inhibition

A

Process whereby enzymes are either positively or negatively regulated in response to the levels of metabolites that are not their substrates.

a conformational change in an enzyme may occur so that an active enzyme becomes inactivated and vice versa

78
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

Set of enzyme-catalyzed reactions by which glucose is synthesized from small organic molecules such as pyruvate, lactate, or amino acids; in effect, the reverse of glycolysis.

79
Q

Glycogen structure

A

composed of two major bonds, which are alpha-1,4 and alpha-1,6 glycosidic bonds - making linear glucose chains and branching points, respectively, for storage in animals

80
Q

Starch Structure

A

a simple linear polymer called amylose (polysaccharide chain that is made up of glucose monomers joined by ɑ (1,4) glycosidic linkage) and a more complex branched form called amylopectin for energy storage in plants

81
Q

Cellulose structure

A

long polymer chains of glucose units connected by a beta linkages

They are layered closely together due to hydrogen bonds that provide rigidity and strength to the structure of plants

82
Q

Delta G < 0

A

Exergonic
Spontaneous

83
Q

Delta G > 0

A

Endergonic
Not spontaneous

84
Q

Low blood sugar process

A

–When blood sugars are low, the pancreas releases the hormone glucagon into the blood stream
–Glucagon binds to liver cell receptors
–This triggers the liver to release stored glucose originally stored as glycogen into the blood

85
Q

High blood sugar process

A

–When glucose levels are high, the pancreas releases the hormone insulin into the blood stream
–Insulin binds to cell insulin receptors
–This allows the transportation of glucose into cells

86
Q

Isoenzymes

A

different forms of the same enzyme that have different amino acid sequences and are found in different tissues that catalyze the same chemical reaction

They may have:
–Different genes
–Different tissue expression
–Different developmental timing of expression

87
Q

Summary of Glycolysis

A
  1. Energy investment as two ATP are used
  2. The cleavage of glucose from into two 3-carbon molecules
  3. Energy generation of two pyruvate, four ATP and two NADH
88
Q

Isoenzyme example of Phosphofructokinase

A

PFK-L liver
PFK-M muscle
PFK-P platelets

Different enzymes that all phosphorylate fructose-6-phophate to form fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

89
Q

Hereditary Fructose Intolerance

A

HFI is a recessive disorder where individuals with HFI lack a functional copy of Aldolase B

Aldolase catalyzes the conversion of fructose 1-6-diphosphate into two different molecules

90
Q
A

Cell Biology (7 decks)

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