Exam 4 Animal Form & Function Flashcards
Where are sperm formed?
Testis
Which of the choices is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new individual arise by splitting of one organism into pieces?
Fragmentation
In general, sexual reproduction is more likely found in species that live in:
Environments with variable conditions, as opposed to species that live in environments with constant conditions
Which of the structures is responsible for holding urine until it is excreted from the body?
Bladder
The loops of Henle created a concentration gradient in the interstitial fluid surrounding the loop, with the concentration highest in the _______ and lowest in the ______ of the kidney.
Inner medulla; cortex
Multicellular animals with pressurized circulatory systems use a three-step process to isolate and eliminate waste
List steps from earliest to latest
Filtration, reabsorption, secretion
Three forms of nitrogenous waste in order from that which requires the most water to eliminate it to that which requires the least water to eliminate it.
Ammonia, urea, uric acid
Osmoregulators ________ internal solute concentration compared to their external environment.
have different
Fish in a marine environment must maintain a relatively constant ion concentration in their tissues and blood. How do chloride cells in the gills aid fish in the removal of excess ions?
The chloride cells actively remove ions from the body and water follows by osmosis
Which region of the brain is larger in humans and primates than in other vertebrates
Cerebral cortex
Which brain region controls droves, instincts, and emotion?
Limbic system
What type of sensory receptor is present in taste buds?
Chemoreceptors
The charge difference between the inside of the cell membrane and the outside of the cell membrane is known as:
The membrane potential
In vertebrates, sympathetic nerves, such as those responsible for the “fight-or-flight” response, are part of the:
- Autonomic (involuntary) nervous system
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Which scenarios will likely trigger an action potential?
- Multiple excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) arriving close in time at a single synapse (temporal summation) on the postsynaptic cell
- Single excitatory postsynaptic potentials arriving simultaneously at several different synapses
(spatial summation) on the post synaptic cell
Which structure is found in the synapse?
Neurotransmitter
What types of synaptic inputs can postsynaptic nerve cells receive?
Both excitatory and inhibitory
Neuronal stimuli are received by:
Dendrites
An important function of myelin is to:
Increase the speed of nerve signal transmission along the axon
When and environmental stimulus is received the signal is usually transmitted through three types of nerve cells. In which order is the signal transmitted through these cells?
- Sensory neurons
- Interneurons
- motor neurons
In the heart of the fish, where would you expect to find oxygenated blood?
No where; oxygenated blood does not pass through a fish’s heart
Consider the mammalian heart. Why is the muscular wall of the left ventricle thicker than that of the right ventricle?
The left ventricle must contract with more force in order to send blood to the body’s extremities
Why is there an elastic layer found in arteries but not veins?
Blood pressure is higher in the arteries than veins and the elastic layer helps maintain the structure of the artery
Most mammals excrete________, most aquatic animals excrete_______, birds, insects, and reptiles excrete ________.
Urea, ammonia, uric acid
The perceived flavor of food depends on both the sense of taste and smell. The sensory receptors of olfaction are _______ and those of taste buds are _______
Chemoreceptors, chemoreceptors
What aspect of a neuron is consistent in the diagram of neuron shape and size
The presence if axons and dendrites
What types of synaptic inputs can postsynaptic nerve cells receive?
Both excitatory and inhibitory
True Statement: Myoglobin
It is found within muscle tissue
True Statement: Respiration in mammals
- Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli
- Respiration depends on changes in the air pressure in the chest cavity
- Respiration depends in contractions of the diaphragm
To aid inhalation, both the diaphragm and intercostal muscles are used. By expanding the thoracic cavity, these muscles create a space with _________ atmospheric pressure.
Lower pressure than
The respiratory and cardiovascular systems of vertebrate animals work in tandem to transport oxygen to metabolizing tissues and to eliminate carbon dioxide as a waste gas. Which of the statements accurately describes how systems interact for gas exchange.
- The rate oxygen transport by diffusion across the lungs must generally match the rate of transport by the circulatory system
- Bulk flow of gases and solutes works well over long distances, whereas diffusion is effective only over short distances
In humans, oogenesis is completed
once the sperm penetrates the oocyte
Spermatogenesis and. oogenesis differ in that
oogenesis produces one egg and spermatogenesis produces for sperm
Fish in a marine environment must maintain a relatively constant ion concentration in their tissues and blood. How do the chloride cells in the gills aid fish in the removal of excess ions?
The chloride cells actively remove ions from the body and water followed by osmosis.
Partial Pressure
-Oxygen makes up approximately 21% of gas in the air
-For O2 to diffuse from the air into cells, the partial pressure of O2 inside the cells must be lower than the partial pressure of O2 in the atmosphere
- Respiration usually involves diffusion
Gas Exchange by Diffusion
- Diffusion is an extremely effective way to exchange gasses and other substances over short distances between two compartments
Bulk Flow
-The physical movement of fluid over a given distance, in addition to diffusion
Ventilation
-The movement of the animal’s respiratory medium-water or air-past a specialized respiratory surface
Circulation
-The movement of a specialized body fluid that carries O2 and CO2
-he circulatory fluid is called hemolymph in invertebrates and blood in vertebrates
Gas exchange organs
In aquatic animals:
- Respiratory fluid is water
- Organs are gills
In terrestrial animals
- Tracheae
- Internal lungs
Countercurrent exchange
-Blood flow in the opposite direction to water passing over the gills
- Blood is always less saturated with O2 than the water it meets
- In fish gills, more than 80% of the O2 dissolved in the water is removed as water passes over the respiratory surface
Tidal Ventilation
- The expansion of the lungs causes the air pressure inside lungs causes the air pressure inside lungs to become lower than the air pressure outside the lungs
- The resulting negative pressure draws air into the lungs
Human Respiratory Structures & Lung Anatomy Pt. 1
Mammalian lungs have an enormous surface area and a short diffusion distance for gas exchange and are well adapted from breathing air
Tidal Volume
When more O2 is needed during exercise, both frequency and tidal volume increase to elevate the ventilation rate.
Hemoglobin
-Hemoglobin is a specialized iron-containing molecule for O2 transport
- Found in blood
Myoglobin
- Found in red muscle
- A monomer that contains only a single heme group
- Specialized O2 carrier within the cells of vertebrate muscles
- Big affinity for O2 and binds tightly
-Once exercising muscles consume the available O2, the intracellular pO2 drops, the myoglobin releases its bound O2
Single Circulation in Fish
- Bony fishes, rays, and sharks have single circulation with a two-chambered heart
- Blood leaving the heart passes through two capillary beds before returning
Cardiac Cycle
Diastole: The atria contract, filling the ventricles with blood
Systole: The ventricles contract, pumping blood out of the heart
Structures of arteries and veins
- Both have an endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue
- Arteries: Thicker walls to accommodate the high pressure of blood pumped from the heart
-Veins: Thinner walls, blood flows back to the heart mainly as a result of muscle action
Blood Flow Velocity
- Velocity of blood flow is lowest in the capillary beds, as a result of the high resistance and large total cross-sectional area
- Blood flow in capillaries is necessarily slow for exchange of materials
Where are oocytes formed?
Ovary
The developing embryo implants into the uterine lining about 5 days after fertilization. At this stage, it is a fluid-filled ball of cells called a:
Blastula
Each of the major hypotheses proposed to explain why sexual reproduction is more widespread than asexual reproduction ultimately bases its explanation on the adaptive benefit of:
Forming genetically distinct offspring
Which of the animals is not oviparous?
Mouse
Endotherms usually, though not always, maintain a ________ body temperature that is ________ that of the environment
Constant; Higher than
The most reliable food source containing all of the essential amino acids for humans is:
Meat
An animal’s metabolic rate can be affected by its:
Activity level, body size, and body temperature
Among the multiple types of teeth, _______ are used predominantly for crushing and grinding.
Molars and premolars
Which part of the digestive tract is the predominant location for water and mineral absorption?
Hind gut
Most nutrient absorption takes place in the:
small intestine
Because most herbivores do not produce cellulase, they have specialized compartments in their digestive tracts that:
House large populations of bacteria that do produce cellulase
Which of the answer choices are components of a vertebrate kidney?
Glomerulus, bowman’s capsule, renal tubules. and collecting ducts
Chemical elements other than carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen that are required in the diet and must be obtained from the food in an animal eats are otherwise known as:
Minerals
Which option is a muscle tissue that moves one bone with respect to another, enabling movement of an organism?
Skeletal muscle
What is the basic contracting unit of a skeletal muscle?
Sarcomere
What is a muscle fiber?
A single cell of a muscle
A ball-and-socket joint:
Has a greater range of motion than a hinge joint
Chemical Synapses
-Action potential conducted down axon
-Triggers opening of Ca2+ channels
- Neurotransmitters released from vesicles into synaptic cleft and bind to receptors in post synaptic neuron which opens ion channels
Neurotransmitters
-Depending on the neurotransmitter and receptor, binding can cause either a depolarization or a hyperpolarization
- Depolarization is called and excitatory postsynaptic potential or EPSP
- Hyperpolarization is called an inhibitory postsynaptic potential or IPSP
Resting Membrane Potential
-The sodium-potassium pump uses the energy of ATP to move 3 Na+ ions outside the cell for every 2 K+ ions moved in
- K+ channels open and K+ flows out of the cell adding to negative charge inside the cell and move positive charge outside the cell
Depolarization VS hyperpolarization
Depolarization: When a nerve cell is excited, its membrane becomes less negative. Increase in membrane potential causes the membrane to depolarize
Hyperpolarization: Prevents the action potential from moving back up the axon
Action potential and propagation of action potentials (saltatory propagation)
- Membrane depolarization of the axon moves in only one direction and typically away from the cell body
- Voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels are concentrated at Nodes of Ranvier
-Saltatory propagation greatly increases the speed of signal transmission
myelin sheath and glial cells
- Axons are insulated by a myelin sheath
-Myelin spreads the charge from a local action potential over a much greater distance on the axon’s length than would be possible in the absence of myelin - The human brain has many more glial cells than neurons
- Glial cells surround neurons and provide them with nutrition and physical support
- Because nerve cells have a limited capacity to regenerate after being damaged, protection of the brain and spinal cord is critically important
Nervous System Organization
Central NS
Peripheral NS
Somatic
Autonomic
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
Sensory Receptors
Chemo: taste and smell
mechano: touch and sound
photo: light
Process of hearing
-Amplification:sound vibrations are transmitted by the eardrum and amplified by the three bones in the middle ear
-Transfer of sound vibrations to fluid pressure waves
- Mechanoreception by hair cells within the cochlea
Vertebrate vision
-Vertebrates and cephalopod mollusks have single-lens eyes that produce sharply defined images
-An advantage of single-lens eyes compared to compound eyes is that the single lens can focus light rays on a particular region of photoreceptors, improving both image quality and light sensitivity
Major regions of the brain
Forebrain: Cerebral Cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus (governs more advanced cognitive functions)
Midbrain: part of the brain stem
Hindbrain: pons and medulla
Limbic System
The limbic system controls physiological drives, instincts, emotions, and motivation and, through interaction with midbrain regions, the sense of reward
A posterior region of the limbic system, the hippocampus, is involved in long-term memory formation
Lobes of brain and function
-The frontal lobe is located in the anterior region of the cerebral cortex
–It is important in decision making and planning
-The parietal lobes are located posterior to the frontal lobe, separated from it by the central sulcus
–The parietal lobes control body awareness and the ability to perform complex tasks, such as dressing or brushing one’s hair
-The two temporal lobes lie to the side, below the parietal lobes
–They are involved in processing sound as well as performing other functions
-The occipital lobe is located behind the parietal lobe, at the back of the brain.
–It processes visual information from the eyes
Motor and Somatosensory Cortices
Both cortices make connections to the opposite side of the body by sending axons that cross over in the brainstem and spinal cord
As a result, the right cortex controls the left side of the body and the left cortex controls the right side of the body
Osmoconformer vs osmoregulators
Osomoconformers: consisting only of some marine animals, are isoosmotic with their surroundings and do not regulate their osmolarity
Osmoregulators: expand energy to control; water uptake and loss in a hyperosmotic or hypoosmotic environment
Hyperosmotic vs hypoosmotic
Hyperosmotic- more salt
Hypoosmotic- less salt
Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic pressure is the pressure needed to prevent water from moving across a selectively permeable membrane
Reflects the tendency of water to move from one solution into another by osmosis
The higher the solute concentration, the higher the osmotic pressure of that solution
There is a greater tendency for water to move into that solution
Excretory process
Key functions of most excretory systems
Filtration: Filtering of body fluids
Reabsorption: Reclaiming valuable solutes
Secretion: Adding nonessential solutes and wastes to filtrate
Excretions: Processed filtrate containing nitrogenous wastes is released from the body
Types of nitrogenous waste
Ammonia: fish
Urea: mammals
Uric acid: birds
Antidiuretic hormone
Antidiuretic hormone, ADH, is also called vasopressin
Osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus monitor blood osmolarity and regulate release of ADH from the posterior pituitart
When osmolarity rises above its set point, ADH release into the blood stream increases
Increasing the permeability of the collecting ducts to water
Homeostasis
water and electrolyte balance and the regulation of blood volume and blood pressure
Asexual vs sexual
Sexual- the creation of an offspring by fusion of a male gamete and a female gamete to form a zygote
Asexual- creation of offspring without the fusion of egg and sperm
Types of asexual reproduction
Binary Fission- Daughter cells are identical to the parent. Occurs after chromosome replication
Budding- Produces an individual smaller than the parent. Is the result of an outgrowth usually due to cell division
Fragmentation- new individuals arise asexually by splitting off one part of an organism, that then grows into a new individual
Parthenogenesis- females produce eggs that develop through mitosis, and are not fertilized by males
Internal vs external fertilization
External fertilization; many offspring unstable environments
internal fertilization; fewer offspring stable environments
Amniotic Egg
Allantois; encloses a space where metabolic wastes collect
Chorion; Surrounds the entire embryo
The Human Male Reproductive System
Sperm characteristics (form&function)
Small
Flagellum
Acrosome (enzymes)
Spermatogenesis
-the formation of sperm, is continuous and prolific
-Hundreds of millions of sperm produced per day; each sperm ~7 weeks to develop
Oogenesis
The development of a mature egg, is a prolonged process
Immature eggs form in the female embryo but do not complete their development until years or decades later
Human female reproductive structures
Oocytes will mature into ova and are produced in the ovaries
Ova are released monthly in response to hormones in the process of menstruation
Fertilization
- sperm contact oocyte
- sperm release hydrolytic enzymes from their acrosomes to aid movement through the two outer layers of the oocyte
- plasma membrane of the sperm and oocyte fuse together causing the completion of meiosis II
- Sperm nucleus enters egg cytoplasm
