Exam 4 Flashcards
1
Q
Opiates are _________?
A
Natural or synthetic drugs that affect pain relief in major ways.
2
Q
When a person uses a psychoactive drug so much that they need the drug for their physical or psychological well-being, this person is said to be?
A
Dependent on the drug.
3
Q
Drugs that alter one’s mood and behavior are called?
A
Psychoactive
4
Q
Processes of how a psychoactive drug can alter communications across a synapse?
A
- Drug could fit into the receptors for the neurotransmitter, blocking the neurotransmitter, but not stimulating an effect
- Drug could increase the number of neurotransmitter molecules in the synapse, thus producing a greater effect
- The drug could act like a neurotransmitter, fitting into the receptors and producing the effect
5
Q
When it takes increasing amounts of a drug to have the same effect, someone is said to be?
A
Tolerant
6
Q
Which organ is responsible for metabolizing alcohol?
A
Liver
7
Q
Which drug is not a stimulant, and is surprisingly, considered a depressant?
A
Alcohol
8
Q
Psychoactive Drug
A
- Natural or synthetic molecules that alter communication between neurons:
- Stimulate or inhibit release of NT
- Delay removal/breakdown of NT
- Acts like a NT by binding to receptors
- stimulate receptors on postsynaptic neurons
- Prevent NT action
- block receptors (prevent NT action)
- Ex. Block pain or anxiety
9
Q
Tolerance
A
-Progressive decrease in effectiveness of a drug
- Require more drug to get original effects.
- Longer/more frequent doses to produce the same effect
- Body tries to maintain homeostasis in the presence of drugs
- Increases enzymatic production to more quickly breakdown the drug
- Decreases number of receptors on postsynaptic neurons
10
Q
Dependency
A
- Physical changes to nervous system
- Drug is required by user for their physical or physiological well-being
- Nervous system is no longer able to produce “appropriate” or “normal” responses because of physical changes
- Drug required to maintain level of “homeostasis”
- Withdrawal symptoms occur when drug use stop signs
11
Q
Drugs that most quickly lead to dependency?
A
-Ones that stimulate “pleasure” centers of the brain
- Main examples:
- Cocaine
- Amphetamines
- Nicotine
- Morphine/Opiates
12
Q
Cocaine
A
- All natural from coca plant
- Produces feelings of: pleasure, confidence, alertness
- Increases “feel good’ NT
- Dopamine and Norepinephrine
- Increases residence time in synaptic gap of NT’s
- Dopamine - Blocking reuptake
- Norepinephrine
-Snorted, smoked, or injected
13
Q
Positive effects of cocaine are short-lived and then
A
- Lasts no more than 90 minutes
- Followed by a “crash”… feeling anxiety, depression, fatigue
- Produces a “craving” for more cocaine
14
Q
Cocaine Health Issues
A
- Cardiovascular
- Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and interferes with nerves that regulate heartbeat
- Can result in heart attack or stroke
- Constricts arteries - increases blood pressure
- Respiration
- Interferes with neurons controlling respiration
- As cocaine wears off, activity in respiration centers of brain become depressed – potentially causing respiratory failure
-Damaged nerves, membranes, blood vessels of the nose (repeated snorting)
15
Q
Amphetamines
A
- Synthetic stimulants that interferes with reuptake and increases release of dopamine and norepinephrine
- Effects dopamine and norepinephrine
- Effects of can last for hours
- In low, controlled doses, prescription versions of these drugs increases alertness, concentration, reduced fatigue
16
Q
Meth
A
- Street form of amphetamine
- Smoked (most common), ingested as pills, crushed then snorted, or injected
- Behavioral modification
- Prolonged use appears to have long-term negative consequences to nervous system
- Chronic meth users often suffer from impairments to memory and emotional centers of brain
- Induces euphoria, feelings of high self-esteem, increased libido, insomnia, mania
- Long-term and high doses: anxiety, paranoia, movement disorders, also hallucinations, and psychotic behavior
- Plug reuptake pumps
17
Q
Hallucinogenic Drug
A
- Ecstasy (MDMA)
- A diverse array of drugs – similar effects (like mushrooms, LSD, etc.)
- Visual, auditory, or other hallucinations
- Effects:
- Serotonin (sense of well-being)
- Acetylcholine promotes release of serotonin and dopamine
18
Q
Ecstasy Physiological Effects
A
- Stimulant
- Causes hyperthermia (increased body temp - heat stroke)
- Dehydration
- If water intake is increased substantially, sodium and potassium can become diluted. Sodium needed for action potential in neuron. Better to drink something with electrolytes
- Ecstasy pills/liquids often contain other drugs
- Effect is more meth-like
19
Q
Ecstasy Long-Term Effects
A
- Degradation of dopamine/serotonin releasing neurons
- Chronic depression, anxiety, insomnia
20
Q
Opioids
A
- Affects opioid receptors
- Produce “morphine-like” effects - pain relief
-Variety of drugs:
codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, tramadol, vicodin, percocet, morphine, heroin
- Easily leads to addiction, physical dependence, thus withdrawal
- Respiratory distress (death)
-Fentanyl and carfentanil – extremely potent, thus dangerous
21
Q
Alcohol
A
- Depresses (slows down) activity of all neurons.
- Tends to depress inhibitory neurons quickest
- Excitatory neurons run amuck AT FIRST
- Release from inhibitory controls tends to reduce anxiety and creates a sense of wellbeing
- Readily diffuses into cells
22
Q
Ethanol
A
- (Alcohol)
- The alcohol in every “alcoholic” drink – very small molecule
- Both water and lipid soluble (will enter cell very quickly; readily gets into cells)
- Standard “drink” = 0.5 oz of ethanol(/alcohol?)
- Intoxicating effects begins quickly as it is absorbed
- Absorption begins in the stomach
- Higher concentration = faster absorption (stronger the alcohol, faster you’ll get drunk)
- Food slows down absorption
23
Q
Alcohol Elimination
A
- Liver breaks down alcohol.
- About 1 standard drink per hour
- Enzymatic breakdown begins in stomach.
- Alcohol dehydrogenase (enzymes)
- more in men than in women
- genetic patterns – more in certain populations
-small amount (5%) of alcohol excreted in urine and by lungs (breathalyzers)
24
Q
Alcohol Health Issues: Heart and Blood Vessels
A
-Moderate use (1 drink/day) appears to help heart (decreases cardiovascular disease)
- High consumption:
- Liver disease
- Alcohol is metabolized before fat
- Fat accumulation in liver cells
- Liver cells swell and burst
- Scar tissue formation (cirrhosis)
- Cardiovascular damage
- Nervous system problems -At high levels, inhibits neurons for balance, coordination, consciousness, and breathing
- Fetal alcohol syndrome
- moves across placenta
- birth defects
25
Q
Alcohol Health Issues: Nervous System – Short-Term
A
- Depresses activity of all neurons
- Neurons in higher thinking centers affected first (e.g., inhibitory neurons, motor control)
- At high levels, inhibits neurons for consciousness and breathing
- As alcohol level increases, inhibition of neurons associated with consciousness
26
Q
What factors can influence your alcohol ratio?
A
- Size
- Weight
- Sex
- Genes
27
Q
Blood
A
- Specialized Connective Tissue
- Cells and platelets, soluble protein, suspended within a liquid matrix (plasma)
- Functions:
- Transportation of oxygen, nutrients (glucose ions, etc.), and wastes (CO2, etc)
- Regulation:
- Body temperature and buffers pH
- Protection:
- Immune cells - white blood cells
28
Q
Blood Composition
A
- Plasma
- Cells - Formed Elements
- White blood cells
- Red blood cells
29
Q
Red Blood Cells
A
-”Erythrocytes”
- Abundant
- Drop of blood contains several millions of RBC
-Transport oxygen from lungs to cells
30
Q
Red Blood Cell Structure
A
- Biconcave disc
- Maximizes surface area/volume ratio
- Flexible: easy movement
- No nuclei, few organelles
- Mostly sac of the protein hemoglobin
31
Q
Hemoglobin
A
- Protein
- Each made of proteins
- Each protein holds 4 iron ions that bind oxygen
- Each RBC contains ~280 million hemoglobin molecules
32
Q
Anima
A
- “not moving oxygen around”
- Lack of blood
33
Q
Anemia
A
- Don’t have enough iron, which carries oxygen, which is used for cellular respiration, which makes ATP (energy), so anemia can slow down and eventually kill cells
- Ex. Sickle celled anemia
- Lack of oxygen = anemia
- Cardiovascular disease
- Internally bleeding, and you don’t know it
- Ex-heroin addict
34
Q
Regulation of RBC
A
- Kidney senses O2 levels in blood
- If low, kidney releases erythropoietin (EPO)
- EPO acts on red bone marrow to increase RBC production
- Mature RBCs released
- Increased blood, O2 levels
- Kidney senses higher O2 and stops releasing EPO
- EPO: a small molecule like NT
- This is a negative feedback system
35
Q
White Blood Cells – Leukocytes
A
- ”Housekeeping”
- remove damaged or abnormal cells
- Immune cells
- warriors against disease
- Types:
- Granulocytes - contain granules (sacs filled with cell-destroying chemicals)
- Agranulocytes - lack large granules (or just really small)
36
Q
Granulocytes
A
- Neutrophils
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
37
Q
Neutrophils
A
- Most abundant WBC
- First to site of infection
- Engulf microbes (through phagocytosis)
- In death, release chemical that attracts more neutrophils
38
Q
Eosinophils
A
-Contain toxins against parasitic worms
39
Q
Basophils
A
-Release histamines (chemicals that attract WBC causing inflammation)
40
Q
Agranulocytes
A
- Monocytes
- Lymphocytes
41
Q
Monocytes
A
- Engulf microbes, dead cells, debris
- Can squeeze between cells and roam freely.
- Become macrophages when it leaves bloodstream.
- Largest white blood cells
42
Q
Lymphocytes
A
-Specific immunity cells
- B cells - B Lymphocytes
- Produces antibodies - proteins that recognize specific molecules (antigens) on invading cells.
- T cells - T Lymphocytes
- Cellular defense
43
Q
Blood Types
A
-Based on presence of surface proteins on RBC (antigens)
- ABO Blood types
- Type A = A proteins
- Type B = B proteins
- Type AB = A and B proteins
- Type O = No blood typing proteins
- Antibodies: detect antigens that your body likes
- Our body’s defenses
- Antigens: what you have on surface (proteins)
- If wrong antigens are present, the body’s defense will attack it
44
Q
Rh Factor
A
- Based on presence/absence of surface antigen on RBC
- No Rh factor = Rh-
- Yes Rh factor = Rh+
- Inheritance: simple/typical dominant/recessive
- Rh+ = dominated
- Rh- = recessive
*Need to know Punnett square
45
Q
Cardiovascular System
A
- Heart (“cardio”)
- Blood Vessels (“vascular”)
- Lungs
- Active system
- heart rates vary
- blood vessels dilate and contract
46
Q
Blood Vessels
A
- Conduct blood
- Arranged as branching networks
- Arteries:
- Carries blood away from heart
- More important if damaged - Veins:
- Brings blood towards the heart - Capillaries:
- microscopic sites of exchange
47
Q
Veins
A
- Movement of blood towards heart
- Gravity
- Pressure from pumping of heart
- Back-flow valves with skeletal muscle contraction
48
Q
Capillaries
A
- Microscopic blood vessels
- Sites of nutrient and gas exchange between blood and interstitial fluids
- Diffusion and pressure moves oxygen, CO2, nutrients, and other things through capillaries
49
Q
Heart Contractions
A
- Cardiac muscle cells are packed tightly together with interweaved membranes
- Allows electrical signal to spread rapidly and the muscle cells to work together during contractions
- 70 contractions per minute
- Pumps 5 liters per minute; 2,500 gallons/day
50
Q
Cardiovascular Disease
A
-Major cause of death in the U.S.
- High blood pressure - “hypertension”
- damaged blood vessels, capillaries = kidney damage, heart damage
- Many factors contribute – lifestyle is important (lack of exercise; bad diet (fats and sugars); genetic factors; smoking)
- Atherosclerosis (“yellow hardening of arteries”)
- Coronary artery disease
- buildup of fatty substances (LDL) in arterial walls
- blockage occurs as a complex inflammatory response (associated with white blood cells)
51
Q
Lymphatic System
A
- Returns interstitial fluids back to bloodstream
- Focusing on its role in protecting against disease-causing organisms
52
Q
Main parts you need to know about lymphatic system
A
- Lymph: (fluid) when you get blister, it’s filled with this fluid
- Lymphatic vessels
- Lymph nodes
- Spleen
- lymphocyte production
- removes old blood cells, microorganisms, debris
- Thymus
- T cell maturation
53
Q
Lymph Nodes
A
- “Filters” intercellular fluid being return to the bloodstream
- Lymph flows through at least one node before returning to bloodstream
- Packed with macrophages and lymphocytes
- When you get sick, they swell up
- Found all over body
- They help fight infection
54
Q
Digestive System
A
- Breakdown macromolecules to absorbable units
- Molecules small enough to be absorbed into bloodstream and delivered to cells
- Absorption of nutrients
- Houses important bacteria
- Rid body of non-digestible wastes
55
Q
Mouth
A
-Start of food digestion
- Monitors food quality
- nerves, taste buds (receptors)
- Mechanical digestion
- jaw, teeth, tongue, moisture
- Chemical digestion
- Saliva is the start
- Amylase (enzyme that digests starch)
56
Q
Pharynx
A
- Passage way for food and air
- Sensory receptors “shut off” trachea before swallowing, sends food down esophagus
57
Q
Esophagus
A
-Muscular tube that conducts food to stomach
- Movement via peristalsis
- Inner circular layer of muscle constricts.
- Outer layer running lengthwise shortens contracting region.
58
Q
Stomach
A
-3 layers of muscle
- Stores food
- Expandable
- Controlled openings
-Mechanical and Chemical Digestion
59
Q
Mechanical Digestion
A
-Mixes food with secretions.
- Liquefies food (2-6 hours)
- Converted to “chyme” - Said to not worry about this
60
Q
Chemical Digestion
A
- Pepsin
- protein digesting enzyme
- Hydrochloric Acid
- Breaks down connective tissue
- Kills bacteria
- Prevention of self-digestion
- Layer of Mucus - Alkaline (pH basic)
- Without HCL pepsin is inactive (= pepsinogen)
- High replacement rate of lining cells.
61
Q
Heartburn
A
- Sphincter that keeps stuff in the stomach is weak
- Acidic stomach contents move up esophagus
62
Q
Ulcers
A
- ”Peptic ulcers”
- Stomach lining eroded by gastric juices
- Causes:
- Use of NSAIDs (ibuprofen, etc.)
- Helicobacter pylori (“Sun Bacteria of Sphincter Muscle”)
63
Q
Small Intestine
A
- Absorption of nutrient
- Requires large surface area
-Very large surface area
- Circular folds
- Like expandable duct work
- Chyme is mixed as it moves
- Villi
- Finger-like projections
- Microvilli
- Hair-like structures
64
Q
Pancreas and Liver
A
- Liver produces bile, which aids in digestion of lipids
- Gallbladder: bile storage
- Pancreas: (behind stomach) produces digestive enzymes and pancreatic juices that neutralize stomach acid
65
Q
Large Intestine
A
- Water (re)absorption
- Vitamin absorption
- Houses large populations of microorganisms:
- Bacteria species that provide lipids and important vitamins.
- Feces storage
- For water re-absorption and controlled dumping/sanitation
-Feces elimination
66
Q
Nutrients
A
- Energy source = ATP formation
- Building blocks = amino acids
- Vitamins: B3 (Niacin) used in NADH and FADH
- Function as coenzymes
- Minerals
- Iron (helps carry oxygen), calcium (muscle contractions), salts, etc.
67
Q
Essential Nutrients
A
-Essential amino acids, fatty acids, and vitamins must be acquired directly from food
68
Q
Nonessential Nutrients
A
-Nonessential amino acids, fatty acids, and vitamins can be synthesized in body
69
Q
Lipids – Review
A
- Large hydrocarbon chains (Carbon with lots of Hydrogen)
- Insoluble in water – “nonpolar”
- Saturated: (with hydrogen)
- Will turn into oil
- No double bonds between carbons
- Can build up, which is bad
- Unsaturated:
- will NOT turn into oil
- better to eat these types
- double-bonds between carbons change physical shape of molecules, thus its behavior
- Pulls away stuff, which is good
- Trans fats
- hydrogenated oils
LOOK UP CHEMICAL FORMULAS FOR SATURATED AND UNSATURATED
70
Q
Functions of Fats (mostly review)
A
- Storage of energy; good source of energy
- Structural components
- Insulator (does not conduct heat well)
- Protection
- Absorption and transport of some vitamins
- Absorption of “fat soluble” vitamins
- A, D, E, and K associated with fat, the lipids carry vitamins through bloodstream to cells
71
Q
High fat diet associated with
A
- Obesity: high blood pressure and diabetes
- Cancers: colon and prostate
- Atherosclerosis
72
Q
Cholesterol
A
- Consumed in food but most synthesized by liver
- Cholesterol binds with proteins and triglycerides to be carried around body (lipoproteins)
- We want high levels of HDL and low levels of LDL
73
Q
-Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL):
A
- Carry cholesterol to cells and also potentially deposits them along artery walls
- Not good in general, but need some of them, not a lot
74
Q
High Density Lipoproteins (HDL)
A
- Carry cholesterol away from cells and potentially away from artery walls
- Generally considered good.
75
Q
What fats to eat?
A
- Saturated fats raise LDL levels
- fats from beef, pig
- Can build up - is bad
- Unsaturated fat
- Pulls stuff away - is good
-Trans fats raise LDL and lower HDL
- Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats (rich in omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids) lowers LDL
- Sources: nuts, olives, several vegetable oils, and oils in certain fish (herring, tuna, salmon, sardines)
