Exam 4 Flashcards
Polygyny can be what two types?
Simultaneous and Successive
Males that mate with several females over a short time are considered what type of polygyny?
Simultaneous
Males that mate with several females over a long time are considered what type of polygyny?
Successive polygyny
What is the most common mating system?
Polygyny
What mating system involves females mating with multiple males?
Polyandry
Polyandry can be what two types?
Simultaneous or successive
List some examples of polyandry species
Insects, amphibians, some primate species
Who provides majority of parental care in polyandry mating systems?
Males
What additional factors exist for predicting parental care aside from mating systems?
Ecological factors, territory size, and physiological contraints
What is the first hypothesis of promiscuity dependent on? (What factor decides parental care?)
Paternal certainty - whichever sex is more certain of their paternity wil assume care of offspring.
What is the second hypothesis of promiscuity based on?
Order of gamete release- whichever gamete is the last to be used takes parental responsibility
What is the third hypothesis of promiscuity based on?
Also known as the association hypothesis. Whichever sex has the greater associated with embryos will provide parental care
What mating system involves a male with a large territory that overlaps with several smaller female territories?
Polygyny
What mating system involves a male and female territory of similar sizes that overlap?
Monogamy
What mating system involves a large female territory with several small male territories?
Polyandry
What is a seasonal harem?
Male will defend the harem during a particular time of year - particularly when females are most receptive
What is a permanent harem?
A harem which the male will defend at all times
What is a super harem?
A harem resulting from intrasexual competition
What is the hotspot hypothesis?
Less attractive males look more attractive when associated with more attractive males
Name 2 examples that disprove the predictions made for mating systems?
The Seaside Sparrow and the Song Sparrow show that both parents are not necessary and that there must be more factors involved as to why monogamy exists. If the male or female is taken away they are still reproductively successful.
True/False
Multiple matings are beneficial regardless of the species
False
Very few species are monogamous, the Zebra finch is monogamous 90% of the time, and 10% of the time mates with other females. What is the first thing a male does when he returns from these endeavors and why?
Copulates with his female because the last mate is most successful.
Why do we think monogamy exists in animals?
Limited successful matings due to competition and factors related to that.
What is the main cost associated with polygyny?
The females take on almost all of the cost. Raising young is incredibly energetically expensive, which means females lose out a lot in polygyny compared to males
What is the pied flycatcher experiment?
A territory is set up, male bird sings attracting female to come and lay her eggs in his territory. After she lays her eggs, he leaves and flies to a second territory where another female will lay eggs who he deserts to return back to the first female.
In the pied flycatcher experiment who is benefiting and who incurs a loss?
The first female benefits and the second female incurs a loss.
How does the sexy son hypothesis explain why polygyny evolved?
Females take the ristk of being the second female because the offspring still may inherit the males genes, especially if those offspring are male.
How does the “unmated males are hard to find” hypothesis explain the evolution of polygyny?
The second female is okay with being the second female because it guarantees a mating.
How does the Deception Hypothesis explain why polygyny evolved?
The second female was simply deceived.
What are the hypotheses more likely to explain why polygyny evolved and what hypotheses is incorrect?
The sexy son and the unmated males are hard to find, are the two hypotheses that are more likely, The deception hypothesis is very unlikely because both females can actually see what is happening.
What is infanticide behavior?
Males will kill offspring that aren’t their own
Why does infanticide behavior occur?
Ensures paternal certainty and induction of receptivity (killing offpsring allows females to become receptive again)
Why did polyandry evolve?
benefits outweight the cost
What are the benefits of polyandry?
Genetic benefits and material resources
What are the potential genetic benefits of polyandry?
Fertility insurance, good gene hypothesis
What is the good gene hypothesis and what mating system is associated with?
Increased genetic superiority of offspring since the most recent male is most likely to fertilize, seen in polyandry mating systems
What material resource benefits are associated with polyandry?
More resources because the female has mated with more males, better protection, reduction of infanticidal behavior due to uncertainty of paternity
What hormones are necessary for prolactin to actually promote maternal care?
Estradiol and progestins
What is kyphosis?
Opposite of crouching behavior, allowing pups to nurse
What are juvenile hormones?
Hormones in insects that play a major role in molting and maternal care
How are juvenile hormones related to maternal care?
Inversely related
Juvenile hormones are very low while she is taking care of offspring, but are elevated before their birth and after they leave.
What hormones are associated with paternal care?
Prolactin, vasopressin, oxytocin, androgens (testosterone)
True/False
Parental care can lead to parent-offspring conflict
True
What is an example of parent-offspring conflict?
Common Eider
What are some ways parents can avoid the cost of parental care?
Brood reduction, siblicide, brood parasitism
What is the most common example of brood parasitism?
Great spotted cuckoo
What are some disadvantages associated with brood parasitism?
Host bird may recognize the parasite eggs and kick them out or abandon the nest completely
If the waggle portion of the dance is straight up where should the flight direction be?
Towards the sun
If the waggle portion of the dance is down, the bees should fly where?
Away from the sun
What does the angle of the waggle dance indicate?
Direction of travel
*Relative to the sun*
What does the distance of the straight run during the waggle dance indicate?
If it is long, the food resource is far from nest, if it is short then it indicates that the food resource is closer.
What does the intensity of the waggle dance indicate?
The more intense the waggle, the better the food resource
When do bees perform the round dance?
when food is less than 50 meters away
When is the waggle dance performed?
When food is more than 50 meters away
What is tandem running and what is it used for?
From of tactile signaling. A scout ant will lead ants to resource using tandem running
What do ants do in place of tandem running?
Chemical communication- scout ant will deposit cehmical cues from the resource to the nest
What are two reasons for dimorphism?
The degree of sexual selection is strong and because there is choosiness going on (females PREFER that feature)
What are some forms of communication used for attracting mates?
Auditory, visual and chemical
What are the two major classes of chemical signals?
General odorants and vomeronasal (pheromones)
Why are general oderants small molecules?
They are highly volatile (easily moved/transported by wind)
How are general oderants detected?
Consciously detectable
Are general oderants species specific?
No, can be picked up by other species
Vomeronasal system pheromones can be both small or large molecules, which of those are volatile/non-volatile?
Small molecules are volatile, large molecules are non-volatile
Which chemical signal system is NOT consciously detectable?
Vomeronasal
How does the silkworm moth use chemical signaling?
Attracting mates - female releases pheromones, when male comes into contact with these, he will stop what he’s doing to find her.
How can chemical signals be used as a deterrent? What are some examples of this?
Female insect laying egs on a leaf use cehmicals as a deterrant to ward off other females from laying eggs there.
Ex. Female aphid, dogs marking territories, bees using alarm signals
What is the Bruce Effect?
Pregnancy effect that shows that pregnant female rats will abort their pups when exposed to pheromones (in the urine) of a novel male she’s never been in contact with.
What is the Vandenburgh effect?
Has specific actions on puberty wherein a virgin female mouse will enter puberty faster if exposed to adult male mouse urine and become receptive sooner.
What is the Lee Boot/Whitten effect?
Works on changes in the estrous cycle. The Lee Boot portion demonstrates females that intially have synched estrous cycles become slower over time when not exposed to males and become anestrous over time. The Whitten portion demonstrates those same females exposed to an adult male will restart their estrous cycles.
What are turbinates functionally important for?
They direct airflow and slow down air flow (which warms air)
Where do receptors for smell reside?
Olfactory mucosa
Where are olfactory receptors actually found?
Within cillia processes
What do axons become after they leave?
They become one big bundle (the olfactory nerve) which carries info from the nose to the brain
Where does the olfactory bulb lie?
Anterior portion of the brain
In the vomeronasal system, where is the location of the vomeronasal organ?
Located on the roof of the mouth
What is ritualization?
A process that makes communication signals more clear
How does ritualization work?
Movements/behaviors become more stereotyped, more repetitive, and more exaggerated
Why do animals want more clear communication signals?
Avoids any confusion in what signals may mean
What is antithesis?
Opposite behaviors confer opposite communication signals
What is the Zahavi’s Hypothesis?
Animals should always treat signals as truthful because it is more beneficial and less costly in the long run
What is one species that defies the Zahavi’s hypothesis?
Mantis shrimp
How does the mantis shrimp defy the Zahavi’s hypothesis?
They use false signals more often than not. They have a very powerful exoskeleton that takes a long time to harden once molted. They still act as if they have the protection of the exoskeleton
What are illegitimate receivers?
“eaves-dropping” in which animals not intended for the signals receive them.
How do animals avoid illegitimate receivers?
Modify when/where/how they use or send communication signals
What is an example of how animals can modfy where they send signals?
The bee dance - is performed inside vertical wall of the hive which is only visible to bees within the hive
What is an example of how animals can modify when they give off signals to avoid illegitimate receivers?
The tungara frog uses a harmonic known as “chucks” used by males to attract females but can be picked up by predators. To avoid this they can modify when they produce chucks by performing them when in a group to avoid being picked off by predators
What is an example of how animals can modify how they give off signals in order to avoid illegitimate recievers?
Animals can position themselves to prevent illegitmate receivers from seeing signals.
How does the female photuris firefly defy the Zahavi’s hypothesis?
Engages in illegitimate signaling by responding to flashes of species not her own in order to consume them.
How does the alligator snapping turtle defy the Zahavi’s hypothesis?
Engages in illegitimate signaling by wiggling tongue and tricking fish into thinking they are a worm.
How does the angler fish defy the Zahavi’s Hypothesis?
Engages in illegitimate signaling through crypsis and tricking prey into coming close enough to consume them.
What portion of the limbic system controls aggression responses?
Brain/neurocirculatory
What can cause aggressive behavior when stimulated?
Amygdala
What portion of the hypothalamus stimulates hissing and claw attacks in cats?
Ventral medial division
What portion of the hypothalamus causes biting behavior in cats when stimulated?
Lateral division
What are some exceptions to androgens contributing to aggression?
Beta fish and prairie voles - castration has no effects on aggression levels
In what species do estrogens play a role in aggression?
Zebra finches
What hormone factors (aside from the exceptions) contribute to aggression?
Androgens, LH, progesterone, thyroid hormones, oxytocin, and vasopressin
What are the two specific thyroid hormones that are proven to be important in aggression?
Thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine
What neurotransmitter is important in aggression?
Serotonin
What experiences contribute to aggression?
Learning, pain, mating system
In what mating system do we see more aggression?
Induced ovulators
What is a simple dominance hierarchy?
One animal is dominant over every other animal in that group
What is linear dominance?
Each animal is dominant over the next
What are three ways that dominance hierarchies established?
Aggresive encounters, association, birth right
Who is birth right based off of?
Who your mother is, dominant female offspring will inherit dominant status
What are the likely ways a subordinate animal will attempt to become more dominant?
One on one competition with the dominant animal, or they will gang up on the dominant animals, or they may try to wait it out. Less likely, they may move on.
If the subordinate animals can not compete, what are some other ways they may try to become more dominant?
Sneaking/stealing behaviors
Change sex
How do Midshipman fish utilize sneaking/stealing behavior to become more dominant?
Sneak in and fertilize eggs
What behavior do frogs utilize in sneaking/stealing to become more dominant?
They use satellite behavior in which a standby male will vocalize but the smaller male ambushes the female
How do centris bees utilize alternative strategies to become more dominant?
The females develop and emerge from underground, a large male usually assists in this, sometimes the small male will standby and wait for the female to dig herself out and intercept before a larger male can
What is the most common form of hermaphoritism?
Protogynous hermaphroditism
What is protogynous hermaphroditism?
Occurs when a female changes to male, this can only happen once and occurs when there is intense competition between males for a female. When they are small they live as a female until they are larger and then live as a male.
In protogynous hermphroditism, if the large male dies, who becomes the next dominant male?
The largest female
What is protandrous hermaphroditism?
Occurs when competition is not as intense and male becomes female because there is a greater advantage to being a large female. When they are smaller they live as male and then when larger become female.
What hermaphroditism occurs in Anemone fish?
Protandrous
What species does protogynous hermaphroditism occur?
Blue headed wrasse, Goby, Saltwater angel fish
What is direct fitness?
Genetic benefit that animals receive by having their own offspring
What is indirect fitness?
Genetic benefit that animals receive by helping distant relatives (having genes passed on by distant relatives)
What is inclusive fitness?
Genetic benefit that animals receive by helping ALL relatives
Explain Hamilton’s Rule
Hamilton’s rule helps explain when animals are most likely to have their own offspring or help relatives raise theirs
What is the equation associated with Hamilton’s rule?
B/C > r1 / r2
(B = Benefit of receiving aid)
(C = cost of aid)
(r1 = coefficient of relatedness between donor and own offspring)
(r2 = coefficient of relatedness between donor and recipients offspring)
What is the mutualism hypothesis?
Associated with altruism in which the idea that animals cooperate to achieve a common goal ( i.e. territory or food resource)
What is the manipulation hypothesis?
Demonstrates behavior that alters the behavior or physiology of another to benefit from but causes harm to the one being manipulated.
Where do we see manipulation?
Parasite/Host relationships
ie. Parasitic worm ingested by a species of ant which causes abdomen to enlarge and turn bright red which tricks birds into picking it up and consuming it, evenutally passes those remnants with parasitic worms to continue the cycle.
What is the reciprocity hypothesis?
Animals provide aid to another animal with the belief that the other animal will return the favor.
How can animals minimize “cheating” in reciprocity?
“Tit for tat” where whatever the animal does to others will be done to them
Why does “tit for tat” work?
Because it is retaliatory and must have a high encounter rate (high probability that animals will encounter each other again)
What are examples of animals exhibiting reciprocity?
Hamlet fish and vampire bat
How does the hamlet fish exhibit reciprocity?
Egg trading behavior - taking turns fertilizing and producing because eggs are “expensive”
How do vampire bats exhibit reciprocity behavior?
If they don’t get enough blood they will beg from their nearby roostmates
What kind of behavior do ecological restraints promote?
Helping behavior
How does the Florida Scrub Jay exhibit helping behavior?
Birds in territories with more helpers produce more offspring increases overall fitness
What are the three primary orders that exist as social insects?
Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps)
Isoptera (termites)
Homoptera (aphids)
Why does natural selection favor a group of “workers” that will never reproduce?
Genetic reasons, ecological reasons, physiological reasons
What is an example of a genetic reason for altruism to exist in social insects?
Queen can not care for all of the offspring
What is an ecological reason altruism exists in social insects?
Maintenance of hives/nests
What is a physiological reason for altruism in social insects?
Specific to isoptera:
Ingest cellulose from wood, in order to be able to have the gut protozoa to do this they need each other
In social insects are siblings equally related?
No
How are male social insects developed?
Unfertilized eggs
What insects are haploid and which are diploid?
Males are haploid and females are diploid
What percent of chromosomes do male social insects get from the mother and father?
Mother: 100%
Father: 0%
What percent of the mother’s genome do male social insects receive?
50% since she is diploid
