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BioChem1 > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

what are the most abundant micronutrients on earth

A

carbs

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2
Q

what are carb polymers called

A

glycans

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3
Q

what important function do they play in joints

A

lubrication

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4
Q

what is their primary function in the body

A

energy

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5
Q

what are they used for within cells

A

signaling molecules

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6
Q

what two functional groups describe all carbs

A

aldehydes

ketones

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7
Q

which functional group is most common

A

(CH2O)n

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8
Q

what suffix do carbs end in

A

-ose

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9
Q

what is a 1 sugar carb called

A

monosaccharide

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10
Q

what flavor is a monosaccharide

A

sweet

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11
Q

what is the most abundant monosaccharide

A

D-glucose (AKA dextrose)

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12
Q

what is a 2 sugar carb called

A

disaccharide

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13
Q

what type of bond holds disaccharides together

A

glycosidic bond

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14
Q

what flavor are disaccharides

A

sweet

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15
Q

what are some examples of disaccharides

A

sucrose and lactose

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16
Q

what language and word is saccharide derived from

A

greek; sakcharon

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17
Q

what is the sweetest sugar

A

fructose

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18
Q

a 3-10 sugar carb is called what

A

an oligosaccharide

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19
Q

are oligosaccharides free in a cell

A

no - they are bound to lipids or proteins in glycoconjugates

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20
Q

can we digest oligosaccharides

A

no - they are highly fermentable and cause gas

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21
Q

a carb with 10 or more sugars is called what

A

a polysaccharide

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22
Q

what are polysaccharides primarily used for

A

storage and signaling

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23
Q

what are some examples of polysaccharides

A

cellulose, glycogen, starch

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24
Q

how many carbons could a monsaccharide have

A

3-7

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25
Q

what is the most common number of carbons in a monosaccharide

A

6

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26
Q

what is a 3 carbon sugar called

A

triose

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27
Q

what is a 4 carbon sugar called

A

tetrose

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28
Q

what is a 5 carbon sugar called

A

pentose

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29
Q

what is a 6 carbon sugar called

A

hexose

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30
Q

what is the most important functional carbon called

A

anomeric carbon

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31
Q

where is the anomeric carbon located in an aldose

A

carbon 1

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32
Q

where is the anomeric carbon located in a ketose

A

carbon 2

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33
Q

what is the chemical formula for an aldehyde

A

CHO

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34
Q

what is the chemical formula for a ketone

A

C=O

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35
Q

what is the scientific name of a 5 carbon aldehyde and what is an example

A

aldopentose

ribose

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36
Q

what is the scientific name of a 6 carbon aldehyde and what is an example

A

aldohexose

glucose and galactose

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37
Q

what is the scientific name of a 5 carbon ketone

A

ketopentose

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38
Q

what is the scientific name of a 6 carbon ketone and what is an example

A

ketohexose

fructose

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39
Q

what geometric change creates isomerization in carbs

A

whether a hydroxyl group is facing left or right

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40
Q

why is isomerization so important

A

it determines function

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41
Q

what factor makes one sugar different than all the others

A

location of hydroxyl groups

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42
Q

what is crucial for enzyme interaction

A

specific hydroxyl patterns

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43
Q

What determines if a carb is D or L

A

position of the OH group on the HIGHEST NUMBER CHIRAL CARBON

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44
Q

is D right or left

A

right

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45
Q

is L right or left

A

L

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46
Q

Does D or L reference rotation of polarized light

A

no

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47
Q

are most sugars L or D

A

D

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48
Q

where is the highest numbered chiral carbon usually located

A

next to the last carbon (above the last CH2OH)

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49
Q

what is an epimer

A

an isomer in which the only difference is the rotation around 1 carbon (type of diastereomer)

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50
Q

what does a single line represent in a Fisher Projection

A

an OH group

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51
Q

what form are carbs usually found in

A

cyclic structures

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52
Q

what is a cyclized aldose called

A

hemiacetal

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53
Q

what is a cyclized ketose called

A

hemiketal

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54
Q

what component of the anomeric carbon group makes it vital in becoming a cyclic structure

A

the double bonded Oxygen

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55
Q

what components make up a Pyranose ring (P-ring)

A

5 Carbon, 1 oxygen

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56
Q

what components make up a Furanose ring (F-ring)

A

4 Carbon, 1 Oxygen

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57
Q

why are aldohexoses found in pyranose rings

A

aldo- implies one CH2OH group.

hexose implies a GRAND TOTAL of 6 carbons.

So there is a total of 6 carbons.

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58
Q

why are ketohexoses found in a furanose ring

A

keto- implies 2 CH2OH groups (5+1)

hexose implies a GRAND TOTAL of 6 carbons.

So there is a total of 6 carbons (4+2)

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59
Q

Why are aldopentoses found in a furanose ring

A

aldo-implies one CH2OH group.

pentose implies a GRAND TOTAL of 5 carbons

So there is a total of 5 carbons (4+1)

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60
Q

In a cyclic projection of a carb, what determines if the sugar is D or L

A

If it is D, the last carbon points up (Dicks go up)

If it is L, the last carbon point down (Lesbians go down)

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61
Q

what tells us whether a cyclic carb structure is alpha or beta

A

the direction of the new OH group on the anomeric carbon once the cyclic structure is formed

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62
Q

what direction does the OH group point on an alpha carb

A

down (fish swim)

the alpha symbol looks like a fish

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63
Q

what direction does the OH group point on a beta carb

A

UP (Birds fly)

Beta=Bird

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64
Q

if the OH on the anomeric carbon is not bounds to another sugar what can it do

A

it can open and flip back and forth between alpha and beta

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65
Q

what is this flipping phenomenon called

A

mutarotation

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66
Q

what sugar acid found on gangliocides is common in the body

A

N-acetylneuraminic acid

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67
Q

what determines if a sugar is a reducing sugar

A

if it has a free aldehyde or a free ketone, it is a reducing sugar

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68
Q

which two classifications of sugars are always reducing sugars

A

monosaccharides and discaccharides

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69
Q

what do oligosaccharides and polysaccharides have

A

at least 1 reducing end

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70
Q

what is used to test for reducing sugars

A

FEHLING’S REAGENT

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71
Q

what type of reaction creates disaccharides

A

dehydration/condensation

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72
Q

what two elements can be at the center of a glycosidic linkage

A

Nitrogen or Oxygen

O-glycosidic or N-glycosidic bond

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73
Q

what forms glycosidic bonds

A

glycosyltransferases

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74
Q

what must be stated in the naming of a glycosidic bond

A

the carbons participating

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75
Q

can disaccharides be reducing sugars

A

YES - as long as there is one free anomeric carbon

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76
Q

what other factor is necessary in naming a glycosidic bond

A

the direction of the OH group on the anomeric carbons involved

(alpha or beta)

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77
Q

what is the disaccharide formula for maltose

A

GLUCOSE-alpha(1–>4)-GLUCOSE

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78
Q

what are easier to digest, disaccharides with alpha or beta bonds

A

alpha is easier

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79
Q

how many sugars in a polysaccharide

A

10 or more

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80
Q

what is the most abundant type of carb in nature

A

polysaccharides

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81
Q

what are they also known as

A

glycans

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82
Q

what two factors create different polysaccharides

A

type of sugar and branching locations

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83
Q

what are two major functions of polysaccharides

A

storage and structure

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84
Q

where are polysaccharides typically found

A

extracellularly

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85
Q

if all the constituent sugars of a glycan are the same what is the glycan called

A

a homoglycan

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86
Q

if there are multiple types of sugars in a glycan what is the glycan called

A

heteroglycan

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87
Q

what are the four types of complex carbs (polysaccharides)

A

starch
glycogen
soluble fiber
insoluble fiber

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88
Q

is starch a hetero- or homo- glycan

A

homoglycan

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89
Q

is glycogen a hetero- or homo- glycan

A

homoglycan

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90
Q

is soluble fiber a hetero- or homo- glycan

A

trick question

it can be both

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91
Q

is insoluble fiber a hetero- or homo-glycan

A

it can also be both

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92
Q

what is the storage form of carbs in plants

A

starch

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93
Q

what simple sugar is repeated over and over in starch

A

D-glucose

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94
Q

where in the plant is the starch stored

A

the endosperm

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95
Q

what is the storage form of carbs in mammals

A

glycogen

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96
Q

which simple sugar is repeated over and over in glycogen

A

D-glucose

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97
Q

where in mammals is glycogen formed

A

cytosol of liver and muscle

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98
Q

what do both starch and glycogen have a lot of that makes them attract water molecules

A

hydroxyl groups

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99
Q

why are starch and glycogen considered HEAVILY HYDRATED

A

because of the high number of hydroxyl groups

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100
Q

what two compounds is starch made of

A

amylose and amylopectin

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101
Q

what is the only bond found in amylose

A

glycose-alpha(1–>4)glucose

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102
Q

what makes amylopectin different from amylose

A

it is highly branched

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103
Q

what bonds constitutes most of amylopectins bonds

A

glucose-alpha(1–>4)glucose

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104
Q

what bond makes amylopectin unique and how often does it occur in starch

A

alpha(1–>6) bonds found every 24-30 glucose residues

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105
Q

what is starch easily digested into

A

glucose

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106
Q

is starch rapidly absorbed

A

yes

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107
Q

what physiological effect does starch have

A

causes a significant and rapid rise in blood sugar

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108
Q

does the body know the difference between High Fructose corn syrup and naturally occurring fructose

A

no

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109
Q

where are most bonds found in glycogen

A

alpha(1–>4)

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110
Q

which other bond is found and how often is it found

A

alpha(1–>6) every 8-12 glucose residues

111
Q

how many reducing ends does glycogen have

A

one

112
Q

what is liver glycogen used for

A

to regulate blood glucose

113
Q

what feature makes glycogen important in regulating blood sugar

A

it is quickly and easily broken down when blood sugar is low

114
Q

what is muscle glycogen used for

A

energy during exercise

115
Q

where does digestion of glycogen begin

A

at the non-educing ends

116
Q

what is a dextran

A

a polysaccharide produced by bacteria and yeast

117
Q

are dextrans homo- or hetero- glycans and of what sugar

A

homoglycan of glucose

118
Q

what glycosidic bonds are found in dextrans

A

alpha(1–>6)
alpha(1–>3)
alpha(1–>2)
alpha(1–>4)

119
Q

where in humans are dextrans most commonly found

A

in dental plaque caused by bacteria on teeth

120
Q

what is the most distinguishing trait of dextrans

A

highly adhesive

121
Q

what factor makes dextrans insoluble

A

extensive crosslinking

122
Q

what is the definition of dietary fiber

A

non-digestible carbs and lignin found in plants

123
Q

what action make fiber soluble

A

it swells in water

124
Q

what action (of lack of) makes a fiber insoluble

A

does not swell in water

125
Q

what do we call fiber that forms a gel in the gut and is a good fiber

A

viscous fiber

126
Q

what types of fiber are metabolized by colonic bacteria

A

fermentable fibers

127
Q

what is a functional fiber

A

an isolated fiber that has a physiological benefit when consumed (extracts)

128
Q

what are the 6 soluble fibers

A 
beta-glucans
gums
wheat dextrin
psyllium
pectin
inulin
129
Q

what are the 4 insoluble fibers

A

cellulose
lignin
some pectins
some hemicelluloses

130
Q

what are the 4 viscous fibers and what other factor do they have in common

A

pectin
beta-glucans
some gums
psyllium

they are all soluble fibers as well

131
Q

what are the 5 fermentable fibers

A 
pectin
beta-glucans
guar gum
inulin
wheat dextran
132
Q

what are the 2 non-fermentable fibers

A

cellulose

lignin

133
Q

what can soluble fiber bind to when it swells

A

cholesterol
triglycerides
glucose

134
Q

what effect can this binding have on cholesterol, triglycerides and glucose

A

it can significantly decrease their absorption

135
Q

what other effect can some of them have that affects satiety

A

delay gastric emptying which makes you feel fuller longer

136
Q

are they digested

A

no

137
Q

what happens to some in the large intestine

A

they are fermented

138
Q

what are they fermented into

A

short-chain fatty acids and gas

139
Q

what are some examples of fermentable fibers

A

inside of fruits and vegetables and psyllium

140
Q

what are the short chain fatty acids good produced by fermentation good for

A

energy

141
Q

is pectin a heteroglycan or homoglycan

A

heteroglycan

142
Q

what two sugars are found in pectin

A

galacturonic acid and L-rhamnose

143
Q

how often is an L-rhamnose found in pectin

A

every 25th sugar

144
Q

which glycosidic bond is found in pectin

A

linear alpha(1–>4)

145
Q

where is pectin found

A

inside of fruits and vegetables

146
Q

what is pectin used as industrially

A

a jelling agent

147
Q

what common product is pectin the active ingredient in

A

Luden’s cough drops

148
Q

what functional group/bond is found on pectin BEFORE RIPENING

A

methyl esters

149
Q

what do the methyl esters become once they are removed during ripening

A

methanol gas

150
Q

are gums hetero- or homo- glycans

A

heteroglycans

151
Q

what types of sugars do gums contain

A

galactose, glucuronic acid and others

152
Q

what common foods contain gums

A

oatmeal, legumes and barley

153
Q

are beta-glucans hetero- or homo- glycans

A

homoglycan

154
Q

what sugar are beta-glucans a homoglycan of

A

glucose

155
Q

what are beta-glucans important for

A

decreasing cholesterol, triglycerides and glucose absorption

156
Q

what are fructans

A

homoglycans of fructose

157
Q

how many fructose residues constitute a fructooligosaccharide

A

2-10

158
Q

how many fructose residues constitute an inulin

A

11-60

159
Q

what is a probiotic

A

an actual bacteria added to food or supplements

160
Q

what is a prebiotic

A

components that stimulate the growth of good bacteria in the gut

161
Q

where are fructans found

A

bananas, tomatoes, garlic, etc…

162
Q

which ingredient of Fiber One bars contains inulin that is responsible for the huge amount of gas produced

A

chicory root

163
Q

what is the major structural component of plants

A

cellulose

164
Q

cellulose is a homoglycan of what sugar

A

glucose

165
Q

how many glucose can be found in a single strand of cellulose

A

300-15,000

166
Q

what type of intermolecular bond is formed that creates the rigid structure

A

H-bonds

167
Q

is cellulose found in vegetables

A

yes but mostly in the peel

168
Q

what is the glycosidic bond found in cellulose

A

glucose-beta(1–>4)-glucose

169
Q

which sugar is chitin a homoglycan of

A

n-acetylglucosamine

170
Q

which glycosidic bonds are found in chitin

A

beta(1–>4)

171
Q

what structures in nature is chitin found most abundantly in

A

exoskeletons of arthropods

172
Q

what supplement is chitin the major source of

A

glucosamine

173
Q

what is a glycosaminoglycan (GAG)

A

a heteropolysaccharide (heteroglycan) found in the extracellular matrix

174
Q

what type of repeating sugars are GAGs made of

A

linear disaccharides

175
Q

what two components make up each disaccharide in a GAG

A

sugar amine and sugar acid

176
Q

what are the two sugar amines that can be found in GAGs

A

N-acetylglucosamine

N-acetylgalactosamine

177
Q

what are the two sugar acids that can be found in GAGs

A

D-glucuronic acid

L-iduronic acid

178
Q

what lifeforms are GAGs found in and more importantly which are they not found in

A

found in animals and bacteria

not found in plants

179
Q

what attribute makes GAGs good lubricants in the body

A

low compressibility

180
Q

what do all GAGs have that make them negatively charged

A

carboxylic acids or sulfates

181
Q

All classes of GAGs contain sulfate except for which one

A

hyaluronic acid

182
Q

which GAG has the highest molecular weight, is up to 50,000 sugars long per chain and is a lubricator in synovial fluid, tendons and cartilage

A

hyaluronic acid

183
Q

which is the most abundant GAG in the body

A

chondroitin sulfate

184
Q

where is keratin sulfate found

A

cornea, cartilage, bone, hair, nails

185
Q

where is dermatan sulfate found

A

skin and blood vessels

186
Q

which cells is heparin sulfate found in

A

all of them

187
Q

what differentiates heparin from heparan

A

heparin is more sulfated; a derivative of mast cell activity

188
Q

what two micronutrients make up a glycoconjugate

A

a carb and a protein

189
Q

what are the three major glycoconjugate groups

A

proteoglycans
glycoproteins
glycosphingolipids

190
Q

which GAG will not bind to proteoglycan monomers

A

hyaluronic acid

191
Q

what causes the ‘bottle brush’ structure

A

the repulsion of the protein core and the GAG

192
Q

what constitutes a proteoglycan aggregate

A

a protein core with hyaluronic acid noncovalently attracted to it

193
Q

what is an example of a proteoglycan monomer

A

Aggrecan

194
Q

what is a glycoprotein

A

a protein + a branched oligosaccharide

195
Q

which protein attached to a carb via a N-link

A

asparagine

196
Q

which proteins are attached to a carb via an O-link

A

serine and threonine

197
Q

what are the 4 functions of glycoproteins

A

cell surface recognition
ABO blood group antigens
biological lubricants
makes mucus slippery (O-linked)

198
Q

most proteins secreted by cells are in what states

A

glycosylated

199
Q

what are some examples of glycoproteins secreted by cells

A

immunoglobulins
peptide hormones
milk proteins

200
Q

what produces bacterial lipopolysaccharides

A

gram negative bacteria like E. coli

201
Q

where are bacterial lipopolysaccharides produced

A

by bacteria in the gut

202
Q

bacterial lipopolysaccharides are absorbed with our lipids as part of our ______

A

micelles

203
Q

what can bacterial lipopolysaccharides cause

A

inflammation

204
Q

what do lipopolysaccharides (LPS) do to insulin resistance

A

increase it

205
Q

do LPSs have an effect on immune signaling

A

yes (including prenatal immunity)

206
Q

what joint condition is increased by LPS

A

osteoarthritis

207
Q

what mental disorder is more likely due to LPS

A

depression

208
Q

what promotes LPS in the body

A

high fat diets

209
Q

what receptor proteins read signals sent by oligosaccharides

A

lectins

210
Q

what are selectins and what is their major function

A

special lectins that mediate cell-cell interactions

211
Q

what type of cells are P-selectin found on

A

endothelial

212
Q

what component of a glycoprotein does P-selectin bind to and on what kind of cells

A

the oligosaccharide on circulating leukocytes (white blood cells)

213
Q

what condition do selectins mediate

A

inflammatory response

214
Q

how does heliobacter pylori cause stomach ulcers

A

it contains a lectin (specialzed receptor protein) that adheres to oligosaccharides on the endothelial cells of the stomach

215
Q

what are three most common forms of the carbs we consume

A

starch
sugar
glycogen

216
Q

what are carb digesting enzymes called

A

glucosidases

217
Q

what carb digesting enzyme is found in the mouth

A

salivary alpha-amylase

218
Q

what bonds does salivary alpha-amylase start digesting and in which carbs

A

alpha(1–>4) bonds in starch and glycogen

219
Q

how does salivary alpha-amylase decide which bonds to digest

A

it is random

220
Q

what is the digested product of salivary alpha-amylase called

A

short oligosaccharides called dextrins

221
Q

what happens to salivary amylase in the stomach

A

it is denatured

222
Q

what digests carbs in the stomach

A

trick question

no carb digestion takes place in the stomach

223
Q

which bonds do pancreatic alpha-amylase digest and on which carbs

A

alpha(1–>4) bonds on starch and glycogen

224
Q

what are the digested products of pancreatic alpha-amylase

A

glucose, maltose and isomaltose

225
Q

what are the 4 small intestine brush border enzymes for carbs

A

lactase, maltase, sucrose and isomaltase

226
Q

what do these enzymes digest sugars into

A

monosaccharides

227
Q

what are the digested products of small intestine brush border enzymes

A

glucose, galactose and fructose

228
Q

what causes lactose intolerance

A

a deficiency of lactase (brush border enzyme) causes lactose malabsorption

as a result lactose goes to Large intestine and is ferments into short-chain fatty acids and gas

229
Q

what type of carb digestion takes place in the large intestine

A

none

230
Q

what type of carb is acted upon in the large intestine

A

soluble fiber is fermented into short-chain fatty acids and gas

231
Q

what happens to insoluble fiber in the large intestine

A

nothing- it is excreted unchanged in the feces

232
Q

how much energy can be derived from the short-chain fatty acids that are fermented in the large intestine (colonic membrane)

A

1.5-2 kcal/gram

233
Q

what is the amount of fiber that will start to cause gas issues

A

> 35 grams/day

234
Q

what is the classification of glucose and galactose

A

aldohexoses (1 CH2OH and 6 total carbons)

235
Q

by which mechanisms are glucose and galactose absorbed INTO THE ENTEROCYTE

A

via ACTIVE TRANSPORT using SODIUM-GLUCOSE TRANSPORTER-1 (SGLT-1) and ATP

236
Q

what transports the resultant monosaccharides to the liver

A

the portal vein

237
Q

what transports the monosaccharides out of the enterocyte into the portal blood

A

GLUT-2 transport protein

238
Q

normally GLUT-2 is found on the basolateral membrane between the enterocyte and the portal blood.

where are they found after a sugar rich meal and why

A

in the brushborder membrane to help absorb glucose by facilitated diffusion (helps speed up the absorption of glucose, no ATP needed in facilitated diffusion)

239
Q

insulin is released in response to the increase in blood glucose

what does insulin do to the GLUT-2 receptors in the brush border

A

it pulls them back to the basolateral membrane to decrease glucose absorption

240
Q

which transport protein binds FRUCTOSE

A

GLUT-5

241
Q

by which mechanism does fructose enter the enterocyte

A

facilitated diffusion via GLUT-5

242
Q

by which mechanism does FRUCTOSE exit the enterocyte and enter the portal blood

A

GLUT-2

243
Q

which sugars are transported by glut-2

A

glucose, galactose and fructose

244
Q

what is the function of GLUT-4

A

transport GLUCOSE from blood plasma to muscle and adipose tissue

245
Q

what are the four uses of glucose in order corresponding to amount in the blood (low to high)

A

blood glucose regulation
glycogen stores
other carbs
turned into triglycerides

246
Q

what is a normal fasting blood glucose level

A

70-99 mg/dL

247
Q

what two peptide hormones regulate blood glucose

A

insulin and glucagon

248
Q

how many amino acids in insulin

A

51

249
Q

how many polypeptide chains in make up insulin

A

2

250
Q

what type of bond holds the two polypeptide chains together

A

disulfide bridge

251
Q

where is insulin synthesized

A

beta-cells of the pancrease

252
Q

what are the four factors that will cause secretion of insulin

A

high plasma glucose [ ]
plasma amino acid levels
CCK
GIP

253
Q

what are the two factors that will inhibit insulin release

A

low plasma glucose

stress

254
Q

is insulin a builder or a breaker

A

builder

255
Q

what three effects does insulin have on carbs

A

increases liver and muscle glycogen

increases glucose uptake in muscles by making GLUT4

decreases glucose synthesis in the liver

256
Q

what two effects does insulin have on lipids

A

inhibits breakdown of triglycerides

stimulates triglyceride synthesis

*these two together increase blood serum triglyceride concentration

257
Q

what two effects does insulin have on proteins

A

stimulates Amino acid uptake by cells

increases protein synthesis

258
Q

based on the amount of glucose present in a cell, what can insulin tell the cell to do with the glucose (low to high levels)

A

use glucose for ATP

store glucose as glycogen in liver and muscles

turn glucose into triglycerides in the liver

259
Q

how many amino acids make up glucagon

A

29

260
Q

where is glucagon secreted from

A

alpha-cells of the pancreas

261
Q

when is glucagon released

A

when blood sugar is low

262
Q

what three factors cause glucagon to be released

A

low blood plasma glucose

plasma amino acid levels

epinephrine or norepinephrine

263
Q

what two factors will inhibit glucagon release

A

high blood plasma glucose

insulin

264
Q

is glucagon a builder or a breaker

A

breaker

265
Q

what effect will glucagon have on carbs

A

degradation of liver glycogen

266
Q

what effect will glucagon have on lipids

A

stimulates TG breakdown

267
Q

what effects will glucagon have on proteins

A

stimulate AA uptake by liver

increases gluconeogenesis (new glucose) from glucogenic AA

268
Q

what is the term used to describe persistently high blood glucose

A

hyperglycemia

269
Q

what fasted blood glucose level constitutes diabetic

A

> 126 mg/dL

270
Q

what are the symptoms of diabetes

A

frequent urination, dehydration and extreme thirst

271
Q

what molecules accumulate as a result of long-term high blood sugar

A

ADVANCED GLYCATION END PRODUCTS (AGEs)

272
Q

what types of food can lead to excessive amounts of AGEs in the blood

A

fried food

273
Q

what can AGEs lead to an increase in

A

oxidative stress

274
Q

what can we do to reduce the concentration of AGEs in our body

A

exercise to reduce the body’s ability to synthesize AGE receptors

eat dark berries (antioxidants)

BioChem1 (1 decks)

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