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Research Psychology > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

What Makes Surveys/Interviews Different from Other Research Forms

A

Surveys/Interviews rely on asking questions directly to the participant rather than making observations or manipulating a variable

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2
Q

What Can Be Studied With Surveys

A
  • Just about anything: preferences, secrets, desires, opinions, etc.
  • Aims to get honest/accurate info
  • Response rates and honesty depend on survey type/topic
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3
Q

Mail Surveys

A
  • Written + self-administered
  • Sent via postal service
  • Needs to be self-explanatory
  • Needs to be interesting enough that people want to respond
  • Inexpensive
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4
Q

Strengths and Weaknesses: Mail Surveys

A

Strengths
- Decreased likelihood of sampling bias
- Can reach a wide variety of people
- Can be distributed where otherwise unsafe
- May get people only available at certain times
- More complete responses since more time to respond
- More likely to get honest responses on sensitive issues

Weaknesses
- Distribution is not perfect
- Not everyone has an address
- Some people can’t read/write
- Very low response rate
- Maybe 30% tops
- Can do multiple mailings (but costly)
- Decreases participant confidence in anonymity
- Self-Selection
- May lead to biased data (esp w/ low response rate)
- No way to know exactly why people who respond do so
- 50% response rate generally required to conclude sample isn’t overly biased

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5
Q

How to Increase Response Rates: Mail Surveys

A
  • Multiple Mailings
  • Hand addressed/signed cover letter
    • May cause hand cramps
  • First-class postage
    • Gets expensive
  • Advance notice
  • Incentives
    • Prize drawings
    • A small amount of money
  • Self-addressed prepaid envelope
  • Make it pretty!
    • Neat, well-organized, easy to read
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6
Q

Strengths: Internet Surveys

A
  • Wide + cheap distribution
  • Automatic data coding
  • Self-administered
    - Needs to be self-explanatory + interesting
  • Easier to find specific groups
    - e.g. disease sufferers, political affiliation, etc.
  • Time effective
  • More honesty
  • Allow for multimedia presentation and responses
    - Overcomes some illiteracy issues
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7
Q

Weaknesses: Internet Surveys

A
  • Response rate
    - Combine w/ physical mail, incentives
  • Response rate may not be known
  • Who is responding?
  • Limited Participant Pool
    - Who has internet? (Becoming less of an issue)
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8
Q

Group Surveys

A

Survey given to a group of individuals already present
- e.g. class, workshop, etc.
- Higher response rate
- Group may/may not be representative (convenience sample)
- Must still be self-explanatory (clarification invalidates survey)

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9
Q

Strengths and Weaknesses: Phone Interviews/Surveys

A

Strengths
- Higher Response Rate
- Harder to say no to a person + you can establish rapport and correct issues
- Less expensive than in person interviews
- Can clarify questions, get more flexibility in questions + responses

Weaknesses
- Not everyone has a phone
- When are you calling?
- Many phone #’s are unlisted and random dialing can lead to non-relevant numbers
- Call Screening
- Interviewer Bias

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10
Q

Strengths and Weaknesses: Personal Interviews

A

On the street, in the mall, in a home, etc.

Strengths
- No need to use list/directory (may be out of date or biased)
- You’re sure who’s providing info
- High response rate (80-90%)
- Even if interview isn’t given, some demographics/characteristics may be visible
- Longer + more in depth info
- Clarification, Follow Up ?’s, ask for more response

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11
Q

Weaknesses: Personal Interviews

A
  • Hard to ensure anonymity
  • Greatest opportunity for Interviewer Bias
    - Interviews behaviors, questions, recording procedures, etc. cause unrepresentative data
    - Unconscious/conscious beliefs and opinions
    - Tone of voice, word choice, body language, interpretation of participants, etc
  • Interviews must be trained
  • Higher likelihood of Socially Desirable Responses
  • Participants might not have info on hand, may need to consult w/ others
  • If interviewers are students/employees/etc. may not do smth right
  • Sampling Bias
  • Time consuming + Expensive
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12
Q

How Should Surveys Be Constructued

A

Order and Appearance Matters
- Should look easy + interesting
- Organize by topic, don’t jump around

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13
Q

Common Techniques Used in Survey Construction

A
  • Funnel Structure
  • Demographic Questions
  • Branching
  • Filter Questions
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14
Q

Funnel Structure

A

Start general, then move to specific questions

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15
Q

Demographic Questions

A
  • Descriptive questions about the respondent
  • Sometimes seen as intrusive/boring
    - Often put @ end so respondents are already committed
  • Sometimes used as an icebreaker (phone/personal)
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16
Q

Branching

A

Determine which questions to ask based on previous responses

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17
Q

Filter Questions

A
  • Determine which following questions will/wont apply to participant
  • Avoids “N/A” responses
  • Avoids boredom/low response rates
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18
Q

Closed Questions

A
  • Possible responses are provided
  • e.g. multiple choice, scale, etc.

Advantages
- Easier to quantify/analyze/perform statistics

Disadvantages
- Must provide enough possible responses (sometimes yes/no isn’t enough)

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19
Q

Open-Ended Questions

A
  • Free answer
  • e.g. short answer, essay, etc.

Advantages
- Can provide more info/explanation

Disadvantages
- Must be coded
- Can again use integrated reliability

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20
Q

Scales

A
  • Make sure lowest/highest values are clearly labeled
  • Consider labeling middle point as “dont know”
  • Avoid making scale too large (1-100 isn’t always better than 1-10)
  • Free Scales
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21
Q

Questions to Avoid in a Survey/Interview

A
  • Loaded Questions
  • Leading Questions
  • Double-Barreled Questions
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22
Q

Loaded Questions

A

Include terms that are emotionally laden/non-neutral
- Often show researcher bias

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23
Q

Leading Questions

A

Suggest that there is a particular desired response
- The organization of questions can also be leading

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24
Q

Double-Barreled Questions

A

Any question to which a single person could have two separate answers
- Goal is to get unambiguous, unbiased, accurate info from respondents

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25
Q

Reliability

A

Does the measurement tool provide consistent results/data/etc.

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26
Q

Test-Retest Reliability

A

Do people respond the same way to a survey when its given a second time
- Best done w/ some time or activity between the tests

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27
Q

Alternative-Forms Reliability

A

How well do two forms/versions of same test yield comparable results?

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28
Q

Split-Half Reliability

A

Entire assessment aims to measure one thing
- Compare agreement between two halves of the assessment

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29
Q

Cronbach’s Alpha

A

Calculates correlation between each and every test item

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30
Q

Validity

A

Are you measuring what you say you are measuring?

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31
Q

Face Validity

A

Common sense measure
- Does it seem like your test actually measures what you intend?
- Not the best measure

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32
Q

Construct Validity

A

The extent to which the concepts you intend to measure are actually measured

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33
Q

Criterion Validity

A

How well do results of your instrument correlate with real outcomes/behaviors?

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34
Q

Tips for Survey Development

A
  • Don’t rush
  • What info do you want?
  • Ask for that info?
  • Get rid of excess questions
  • Pilot survey
  • Get feedback
  • Revise
  • Pilot again!
35
Q

What are the Different Sampling Techniques Used to Obtain Participants

A
  • Sampling Frame
  • Random Sample
  • Systematic Sampling
  • Stratified Sampling
  • Stratified Random Sampling
  • Cluster Sampling
  • Convenience Sample
  • Quota Sampling
  • Snow-Ball Sampling
36
Q

Sampling Frame

A

List of all members of a population
- Sample is chosen from the frame
- Something like phone book or census

37
Q

Elements

A

Individual members that make up sample

38
Q

Random Selection

A

All members of population are equally likely to be chosen for the sample
- Unbiased

39
Q

Systematic Sampling

A

Choose elements according to particular plan/strategy
- e.g. every 12th person from sampling frame
- can be partially randomized

40
Q

Stratified Sampling

A

Used to guarantee that the sample will be representative of specific population characteristics (class, race, gender, etc.)
- make sure you get certain amount from each category

41
Q

Stratified Random Sampling

A

Each member of the individual strata has an equal chance of being included
- Opposite of systematic

42
Q

Cluster Sampling

A

Cluster of representative respondents used
- Random sampling may not be practical
- Should still be representative even if not random

43
Q

Convenience Sample

A

Survey/test whatever happens to be available
- Easy but often biased
- AKA haphazard or accidental sample

44
Q

Quota Sampling

A

Combines stratified and convenience sampling
- Requires representative numbers from particular subgroups, but these numbers are acquired via convenience

45
Q

Snow-ball Sampling

A

Each participant recruits more participants etc. etc.

46
Q

What Sampling Techniques are Considered “Worse” than Others

A
  • Convenience
  • Quota
  • Snowball
  • May be only possible techniques but result in bias
  • Every member of the population doesn’t have equal chance of being chosen
  • May result in non-representative sample
47
Q

Nomothetic Research

A

Conducted on groups in an attempt to identify general laws and principles of behavior

48
Q

Idiographic Research

A

Conducted to study behavior of an individual
- Often looking for patterns
- Still aimed @ objective/interpretable measures

49
Q

Case Study

A
  • Different from single-subjects research designs
  • Descriptions of an individual and their experiences
  • Do not typically involve manipulation of an independent variable
50
Q

Single-Subject Designs

A

Focus on one participant
- Attempt to objectively establish IV/DV relationships
- Individual results
- Replication for generalizability

51
Q

History of Single-Subject Design Use in Psychology

A
  • Fechner: JND (just noticeable difference)
  • Pavlov: Classical Conditioning
  • Ebbinghaus: Forgetting Curve
52
Q

Baselines

A

Measure taken of the DV before any IV manipulation
- Taken @ least once at the beginning of a study, sometimes more
- Stable/Variable

53
Q

Stable Baseline

A

Multiple measures of DV are similar when no IV has been introduced
- No steady increases or decreases
- Steady changes = especially problematic if in same direction as predicted IV

54
Q

Variable Baseline

A

Changes in DV across multiple measures, even when no IV manipulation is made
- Keep taking measures until it evens out
- Find the source of variability and control it

55
Q

Types of Single-Subject Designs

A
  • Time Series
  • Withdrawal Design
  • Reversal Design
  • Alternating-Treatments Design
  • Multiple-Baselines Design
  • Changing-Criterion Design
56
Q

Time-Series Designs

A

Multiple measures are taken before and/or after IV manipulation

57
Q

Withdrawal Design

A

Measurements of DV are taken before IV manipulation, during IV manipulation, and after IV is “withdrawn”
- May be repeated multiple times

ABAB design
- A: Baseline B: Intervention
- Baseline, Intervention, Baseline, Intervention

May Have 2nd Intervention
- A: Baseline B: Intervention 1
C: Intervention 2
- ABAC

Placebo Effect
- A: Baseline B: Intervention
C: Placebo
- ABCB

58
Q

Reversal Design

A

Similar to withdrawal design
- A: Baseline
- B: Intervention
- C: Opposite Intervention
- ABCB
- Less common in applied research

59
Q

Alternating-Treatments Design

A

Alternative form of ABAB design (Baseline may still be included)
- AKA “Between-Series Design”
- A: Baseline
- B: Treatment 1
- C: Treatment 2
- ABCBCBC

60
Q

Multiple-Baselines Design

A

Not all behaviors return to baseline when intervention is removed
- Not always appropriate/ethical to stop effective treatment
- Alternative: introduce treatment in diff settings/situations at different rates
OR
- Introduce treatment to address multiple behaviors at different rates
- A: Baseline
- B: Treatment
- Setting/Behavior 1: ABBB
- Setting/Behavior 2: AABB
- Setting/Behavior 3 : AAAB

61
Q

Changing-Criterion Design

A
  • Avoids withdrawing treatment once started
  • Criterion to encounter intervention changes over time
  • Often, target behavior is gradually escalated/de-escalated
62
Q

Types of Carryover Effects + How they Decrease Internal Validity of Single Subject Designs

A
  • History
  • Maturation
  • Instrumentation
  • Fatigue
  • Practice
  • Subject Bias/Demand Characteristics
  • Experimenter Bias
63
Q

Non-Reactive Measure

A

Acquiring data about behavior has no effect on behavior
- Behavior has already occurred
- Science Detective

64
Q

Physical Trace Measure

A

When physical evidence is assessed in the absence of individuals whose behavior produced it

65
Q

Archival Data

A

Records
- Written
- Digital
- Etc.
- Records are assessed to make inferences about behaviors/attitudes/beliefs/etc.

66
Q

Physical Trace Studies

A

Study of physical evidence left by individuals’ behavior

67
Q

Traces

A

Evidence left as a by-product of behavior

68
Q

Products

A

Objects purposefully created by individuals

69
Q

Accretion Measure Trace

A

Accumulation of evidence
- Something is added as a consequence of behavior

70
Q

Erosion Measure Trace

A

Wearing away of materials as evidence
- Something is taken away

71
Q

Controlled Trace

A

Involves researcher intervention

72
Q

Natural Trace

A

Occurs w/o researcher intervention

73
Q

Confounds Specific to Non-Reactive Studies

A

Selective Survival and Selective Deposit

74
Q

Selective Survival

A

Not all traces/product evidence endures over time

75
Q

Selective Deposit

A

Different subgroups produce different products/traces
- Not every trace/product is representative of the whole population

76
Q

Ethical Considerations Associated with Physical Trace Research

A

Can traces/products be tired back to specific individuals?
- Damage reputation
- Embarrassment
- Incrimination

Are researchers at risk?

77
Q

Document

A

Produced for one’s self
- Not for public consumption

78
Q

Record

A

Produced with the purpose of being viewed by others

79
Q

Continuous Records

A

Records that are added to on a routine basis
- e.g. sales records, census, tax records

80
Q

Discontinuous Records

A

Produced less continuously or only once
- e.g. books, articles, photos

81
Q

Data Processing in Archival Data Investigations

A
  • Reduce data through coding

Content Analysis
- Researcher develops a coding system that is used to record data regarding the content of the records
- Does this record contain the content of interest?
- Determined w/ operational definition

82
Q

Confounds Associated with Performing Archival Research Studies

A

Double Edged Sword
- Nonreactive/not made for research

Selective Survival
- Damage: fire, water, lost, corrupted, etc.
- Can cause skewed view of what’s going on

Selective Deposit
- Ex: # of deer tags registered for hunting could be wrong due to limit on tags or due to individuals not applying

Biases/Inaccurate Information
- Trying to portray agenda
- Incompetent

83
Q

Potential Ethical Issues Associated with Performing Archival Research Studies

A

Privacy
- Bigger issue w/ newer data
- People seek privacy for themselves and for relatives

Usually a safe bet unless people may be identified

Research Psychology (4 decks)

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